MEXICO 

AN  OUTLINE  SKETCH  OF  THE  COUNTRY 

ITS  PEOPLE  AND  THEIR  HISTORY 

FROM  THE  EARLIEST  TIMES 

TO  THE  PRESENT 


BY 


T.  PHILIP  TERRY,  F.R.G.S. 

AUTHOR  OF  '  TERRY'S  MEXICO,'  '  TERRY'S  JAPANESE  EMPIBB,'  ETC. 
With  colored  Map 


BOSTON   AND   NEW   YORK 

HOUGHTON  M1FFLIN  COMPANY 

re&$,  Cambribge 
1914 


PRESERVATION 

COPY  ADDED 
ORIGINAL.  TO  BE 
RETAINED 

.DEC  1 


ES  PROPIEDAD  EN  MEXICO 

COPYRIGHT   XN   THE   UNITED   STATES  OF  AMERICA 

BY  T.  PHILIP  TERRY 

1909 

ENTERED   AT  STATIONERS'  HALL 


COPYRIGHT  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  THE  COUNTRIES 

COVERED  BY  THE  BERNE  CONVENTION 

1909 


FOREWORD 

ALTHOUGH  Mexico  lies  contiguous  to  the  United 
States,  it  is  much  less  accurately  known  to  some  than 
its  importance  warrants.  As  it,  no  doubt,  is  destined 
to  bear  a  closer  relation  to  us  in  the  future  than  it  has 
in  the  past,  it  is  well  that  every  American  should 
know  as  much  as  possible  about  the  country  and  its 
varied  aspects. 

Our  chief  aim  in  compiling  this  volume  has  been  to 
present  in  a  compact  and  inexpensive  form,  a  wealth 
of  compressed  data  relating  to  the  History  of  Mexico 
and  of  the  many  races  which  inhabit  it;  and  to  its 
Physiography  (Area,  Boundaries,  States,  Mountains, 
Lakes,  Rivers,  Gulf  of  Mexico),  Climate,  Govern- 
ment, Constitution,  Army  and  Navy,  etc.  The  care- 
fully arranged  Chronological  Table  of  the  Chief 
Events  in  Mexican  History  from  the  Earliest  Times 
to  the  Present,  is  uniquely  interesting,  and  it  forms 
an  epitome  of  events  and  dates  available  for  quick 
reference  and  peculiarly  valuable  to-day. 

All  the  foregoing  has  been  taken  from  the  pages  of 
Terry1  s  Guidebook  to  Mexico,  and  the  bracketed  num- 
bers and  references  which  the  reader  will  note  in  the 
text  of  the  following  pages  relate  to  that  volume. 
(See  the  advertisement  at  the  end  of  this  book.) 

T.  P.  T. 

HINGHAM,  MASS.,  June,  1914. 


292269 


Physiography:  Area.  Boundaries.  The  Mexican  States. 
Government.  Army  and  Navy .  Mountains.  Lakes.  Rivers. 
Gulf  of  Mexico. 

La  Repiiblica  Mejicana  —  often  called  Old  Mexico  —  ex- 
tends from  north  latitude  14°  30'  to  32°  42',  and  from  12°  18' 
46"  of  E.  longitude  to  18°  6'  15"  of  longitude  W.  of  the  Meri- 
dian of  Mexico  City,  or  between  86°  46'  8"  and  117°  7'  8"  west 
of  Greenwich.  (It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  U.  S.  A.,  on  the 
S.  by  Guatemala,  on  the  E.  by  the  Golfo  de  Mejico,  and  on 
the  W.  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  has  a  coast-line  of  6000  miles, 
and  a  superficial  area  of  1,958,912  sq.  kilom.,  or  766,000  sq. 
miles.  Its  greatest  length,  mainly  represented  by  the  gigan- 
tic dorsal  ridge  of  the  Sierra  Madre,  is  1,970  M.  in  a  straight 
line  from  the  northwestern  extremity  of  Lower  California  to 
the  southern  border  of  the  State  of  Chiapas.  Its  maximum 
breadth,  from  E.  to  W-  on  tne  line  of  N-  latitude  26°,  is 
about  750  M.  and  its  minimum,  at  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuante- 
pec,  140  miles., 

Within  this  vast  territory  are  many  places  replete  with  in- 
terest. The  wonderful  ruined  palaces  of  the  Peninsula  of  Yuca- 
tan; the  Casas  Grandes,  or  Big  Houses,  of  the  State  of  Chihua- 
hua; the  dead  cities  of  Palenque,  buried  in  the  fastnesses  of  the 
almost  impenetrable  tropic  forests  of  the  State  of  Chiapas, 
and  the  mute  and  extraordinarily  attractive  tombs  of  the 
vanished  Zapotec  and  Mixtec  Indian  Kings,  of  Oaxaca  State, 
are  as  sustainedly  interesting  as  the  stupendous  pre-Colom- 
bian  pyramids  of  Papantla,  Cholula,  and  San  Juan  Teotihua- 
can. 

The  Rio  Grande  (big  river)  represents  a  part  of  the  dividing 
line  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States,  but  the  unstable 
character  of  this  river,  and  its  persistent  efforts  to  change  its 
course,  occasion  many  international  discussions.  New  Spain 
once  included  all  the  territory  lying  between  N.  latitude  15° 
and  42°;  by  the  treaty  between  Spain  and  the  U.  S.  A.  (Feb. 
22,  1819)  the  northern  boundary  was  placed  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Sabine  River,  in  Texas ;  by  the  Treaty  of  Guadalupe, 
Feb.  2,  1848,  the  dividing  line  was  fixed  at  the  Rio  Grande. 
Prior  to  this  treaty  the  area  of  Mexico  was  1,650,000  sq.  miles, 
but  the  U.  S.  A.  gained  over  half  this  territory  and  an  addi- 
tional 100,000  sq.  miles.  By  the  "  Gadsden  Purchase  "  Conven- 
tion (1853)  the  U.  S.  A.  secured  a  further  addition  of  45,535 


2  AREA 

sq.  miles.  Mexico  stands  fourth,  on  the  American  continent, 
in  its  possession  of  territory,  being  somewhat  smaller  than  the 
U.  S.  A.  (including  the  Dominion  of  Canada),  Brazil,  and 
the  Argentine  Republic. 

The  main  body  of  the  Mexican  Territory  is  a  vast  table- 
land, a  distinct  geographical  region,  traversed  by  extensive 
mountain  chains  of  remarkable  heights.  These  mountains 
(Sierra  Madre  or  Mother  Range),  a  continuation  of  the  Cordil- 
lera of  South  America,  trend  northwesterly  from  the  Isthmus 
of  Tehuantepec  and  have  but  a  moderate  elevation  in  the 
southern  States  of  Chiapas  and  Oaxaca.  But  farther  north 
the  mean  altitude  is  9,000  ft.  above  sea-level,  and  two  peaks, 
Popocatepetl  and  Orizaba,  rise  to  great  elevations:  the  latter 
forms  the  culminating  point  of  Mexico.  At  the  21st  parallel 
the  Cordillera  becomes  very  wide,  and  divides  itself  into  three 
ranges?  The  eastern  branch  runs  to  Saltillo  and  Monterey; 
the  western  traverses  the  States  of  Jalisco  and  Sinaloa,  and 
subsides  in  northern  Sonora;  while  the  central  ridge  extends 
through  the  States  of  Durango  and  Chihuahua,  forming  the 
water-shed  of  the  northern  table-land.  The  range  decreases 
in  elevation  going  northward.  In  these  cross-ridges  (due  to 
igneous  action),  thrown  out  from  the  longitudinal  system,  are 
many  volcanoes;  nine  exceeding  10,000  ft.  and  twenty  or 
more  rising  above  4,000  ft.  (comp.  mts.  and  altitudes). 

The  great  plateau  (mesa)  is  about  1,500  M.  in  length,  by  530 
in  breadth,  with  a  mean  height  of  6,000  ft.  above  the  sea- 
level  :  it  is  known  as  La  Mesa  Central  de  Andhuac,  and  it  is 
widest  in  the  latitude  of  Mex.  City.  The  surface  is  cut  up  into 
numerous  barrancas  (ravines),  some  of  great  depth.  Two  passes 
afford  outlets  to  the  eastward ;  one  at  Jalapa,  now  traversed  by 
the  Interoceanic  Rly.,  and  through  which  Cortes  built  a  road 
during  the  Conquest :  and  one  at  Saltillo,  at  present  utilized  by 
the  National  Rlys.  Through  this  pass  the  American  soldiers 
climbed  to  the  plateau  during  the  Mexican  War.  The  central 
plateau  is  subdivided  into  four  minor  mesas:  Toluca,  with  a 
mean  elevation  of  8,570  ft. ;  Actopan,  with  a  mean  of  6,450  ft.; 
Ixtla,  3,320,  and  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  7,470  ft. 

Configuration  of  the  Coast.  The  Atlantic  coast  line  is 
about  1,600  M.  long,  and  the  Pacific  (and  Gulf  of  California) 
about  4,200.  The  eastern  coast  is  extremely  fertile.  The  most 
important  ports  are  Vera  Cruz,  Tampico,  Progreso  (in  Yuca- 
tan), Campeche,  El  Carmen,  Frontera,  Coatzacoalcos  (Isthmus 
of  Tehuantepec),  Tuxpam,  and  Matamoros.  Vera  Cruz  ranks 
highest,  with  Tampico  next.  The  western  coast  is  fertile  and 
possesses  some  splendid  harbors.  Chief  among  them  are  Aca- 
pulco  and  Guaymas ;  the  latter,  according  to  Mex.  geographers, 
one  of  the  safest  harbors  on  the  globe.  Manzanillo  is  of  consid- 


BOUNDARIES  3 

erable  importance,  and  Salina  Cruz,  the  Pacific  terminus  of  the 
Isthmian  Route,  is  perhaps  destined  to  become  as  celebrated 
as  Port  Said.  Pacific  coast  ports  of  minor  importance  are 
Agiabampo,  Topolobampo,  Altata,  San  Bias,  Las  Penas,  Cha- 
mela,  Zihuatanejo,  Puerto  Angel,  Tonald,  and  San  Benito.  The 
Pacific  coast  is  healthier  than  the  Atlantic.  The  country  con- 
tiguous to  both  is  low ;  but  the  land  rises  gradually  toward  the  in- 
terior. The  flat  region  of  the  eastern  tierra  caliente  has  an  average 
breadth  of  65  M. :  that  of  the  western  varies  from  40  to  70  M. 
Earthquakes  (terremotos,  temblores)  are  somewhat  frequent. 

"We  are  accustomed  to  consider  Mexico  as  lying  entirely 
south  of  the  United  States,  and  as  entirely  hot  and  tropical; 
but  nearly  one  half  of  the  area  is  north  of  the  southernmost 
points  of  the  U.  S.  A.  Furthermore,  one  half  of  its  area,  even 
much  of  that  extending  into  the  tropics,  is  cool  and  temperate. 

"Mexico  lies  at  the  meeting-place  of  two  zones,  —  the  tem- 
perate and  the  torrid;  and  from  its  geographical  position, 
combined  with  its  varying  altitudes,  possesses  a  greater  vari- 
ety of  soil,  surface,  and  vegetation  than  any  equal  extent  of 
contiguous  territory  in  the  world.  Basking  in  the  sunshine  of 
the  tropics,  her  head  pillowed  in  the  lap  of  the  North,  her  feet 
resting  at  the  gateway  of  the  continents,  her  snowy  bosom 
rising  to  the  clouds,  she  rests  serene  in  the  majesty  of  her 
might.  She  guards  vast  treasures  of  gold  and  silver,  emeralds 
and  opals  adorn  her  brow,  while  the  hem  of  her  royal  robe, 
dipped  in  the  seas  of  two  hemispheres,  is  embroidered  with 
pearls  and  the  riches  of  ocean. 

"Mother  of  Western  civilization!  cradle  of  the  American 
race!  a  thousand  years  have  been  gathered  into  the  sheaf  of 
time  since  her  first  cities  were  built.  When  the  Norsemen 
coasted  our  northern  shores,  she  had  towns  and  villages,  and 
white-walled  temples  and  palaces.  When  the  Pilgrims  landed 
on  Plymouth  Rock,  a  hundred  years  had  already  passed  since 
the  soldiers  of  Cortes  had  battled  with  the  hosts  of  Montezuma. 
In  no  country  in  the  world  can  you  pass  so  rapidly  from  zone 
to  zone,  —  from  the  blazing  shores  of  the  heated  tropics  to 
the  region  of  perpetual  winter,  from  the  land  of  the  palm  and 
vine  to  that  of  the  pine  and  lichen,  —  for  in  12  hours  this  can 
be  accomplished,  and  the  traveller  may  ascend  a  snow-peak 
with  the  sands  of  the  shore  still  upon  his  shoes."  (Travels  in 
Mexico,  F.  A.  Ober.) 


THE  MEXICAN  STATES 


STATES   AND   TERRITORIES   OF  THE   UNITED  MEXICAN 

STATES 

(Estadoa  y  Territories  de  Io8  Estadoa  Unidoa  Mexicanoa.) 

States  and  T.         / 

1.  Aguascalientes 

2.  Campeche 

3.  Chiapas 

4.  Chihuahua 

5.  Coahuila 

6.  Colima 

7.  Durango 

8.  Guanajuato 

9.  Guerrero 

10.  Hidalgo 

11.  Jalisco 

12.  Mexico 

13.  Michoacan 

14.  Morelos 

15.  Nuevo  Leon 

16.  Oaxaca 

17.  Puebla 

18.  Quere"taro 

19.  San  Luis  Potosi 

20.  Sinaloa 

21.  Sonora 

22.  Tabasco 

23.  Tamaulipas 

24.  Tlaxcala 

25.  Vera  Cruz 

26.  Yucatan 

27.  Zacatecas 

28.  Territorio  de  Baja 

California 

29.  Territorio  de  Tepic 

30.  Distrito  Federal 

For  the  purposes  of  civil  administration  the  Mexican  Re- 
public is  divided  into  a  Federal  District,  27  States  and  2 
Territories,  known  as  the  Estados  Unidos  Mexicanos.  The 
States  are  free  and  sovereign  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  their 
internal  administration,  their  government  being  vested  in 
the  State  Government,  State  Legislature,  and  State  Judicial 
Power.  For  convenience  the  States  and  Territories  are  classi- 
fied as  follows,  according  to  their  situation  :  — 

CENTRAL  STATES:  Federal  District,  Aguascalientes,  Du- 
rango, Guanajuato,  Hidalgo,  Mexico,  Morelos,  Puebla,  Quere*- 
taro,  San  Luis  Potosf,  Tlaxcala,  and  Zacatecas,  with  an  area 
of  372,480  sq.  ki!6metros. 

GULF  STATES  :  Campeche,  Tabasco,  Tamaulipas,  Vera  Cruz, 
Yucatan,  and  its  adjacent  Territorio  of  Quintana  Roo,  323,610 
sq.  kilom. 

NORTHERN  STATES:  Chihuahua  (largest,  with  an  area  of 
nearly  90,000  sq.  miles),  Coahuila  (which  once  comprised 
Texas),  Nuevo  Leon,  and  Sonora,  with  658,032  sq.  kilom. 

PACIFIC  STATES:  Colima,  Chiapas,  Guerrero,  Jalisco, 
Michoacan,  Oaxaca,  Sinaloa,  with  the  territories  of  Baja 


Deviations             Area  in  sq.  kildm.       Pop. 

Ags. 

7,644 

105,000 

Camp. 

46,855 

86,542 

Chis. 
Chi. 

70,524 
227,468 

360,599 
327,800 

Coah. 

161,550 

297,000 

Col. 

5,587 

65,120 

Dgo. 

98,470 

370,294 

Gto. 

29,458 

1,061,724 

Gro. 

64,756 

479,205 

Hgo. 

23,101 

605,000 

Jaf. 

82,503 

1,153,891 

Mex. 

23,957 

934,463 

Mich. 

62,261 

931,000 

Mor. 

7,184 

160,500 

N.  L. 

62,998 

400,000 

Oax. 

91,664 

986,000 

Pueb. 

31,616 

1,150,000 

Qro. 

9,215 

232,389 

S.  L.  P. 

65,586 

600,000 

Sin. 

87,231 

296,701 

Bon. 

199,244 

221,682 

Tab. 

26,094 

160,000 

Tarn. 

84,394 

218,948 

Tlax. 

4,132 

172,315 

V.  C.  (also  Vet.) 

75,651 

981,030 

Yuc. 

91,201 

314,087 

Zac. 

63,386 

462,190 

B.C. 

151,109 

47,624 

Tepio 

29,211 

150,098 

D.  F. 

1,200 

600,000 

GOVERNMENT  5 

(Lower)  California,  and  Tepic;  the  combined  area  measuring 
629,037  sq.  kilom. 

These  vast  possessions  represent  the  most  highly  mineral- 
ized region  on  the  globe.  In  some  of  the  States,  three  harvests 
are  annually  secured.  There  are  52  varieties  of  mammal 
quadrupeds,  203  varieties  of  fowls,  50  kinds  of  humming-birds, 
353  species  of  birds,  77,000  (catalogued)  coleoptera,  43  classes 
of  reptiles,  13  batrachians,  and  a  greater  variety  of  plant 
life  than  is  known  to  exist  in  any  other  country.  For  de- 
tailed information  referring  to  the  above  States  and  Terri- 
tories, consult  the  different  headings  in  the  Handbook. 

The  present  Constitution  of  Mexico,  promulgated  Feb.  5, 
1857,  and  subsequently  amended,  declares  that  the  Mexican 
Republic  is  established  under  the  representative,  democratic, 
and  federal  form  of  government,  composed  of  states  free  and 
sovereign  in  everything  relating  to  their  internal  administra- 
tion, but  united  in  one  single  federation  in  accordance  with 
the  principles  set  forth  in  the  said  Constitution.  The  Su- 
preme Government  is  divided  into  three  coordinate  branches: 
Legislative,  Executive,  and  Judicial.  The  legislative  power 
of  the  nation  is  vested  in  a  general  Congress,  consisting  of 
two  Chambers,  the  Deputies,  and  the  Senate.  The  Chamber 
of  Deputies  is  composed  of  representatives  of  the  nation 
elected  every  two  years  by  the  Mexican  citizens  and  in  the 
proportion  of  one  Deputy  for  every  40,000  inhabitants,  or 
fraction  over  20,000,  the  term  of  service  being  two  years. 
The  requisite  qualifications  are  similar  to  those  of  other 
countries.  The  Senate  consists  of  two  Senators  for  each  State 
and  the  Federal  District,  chosen  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
Deputies,  and  subject  to  certain  limitations  of  age,  etc. 

The  Congress  has  two  ordinary  sessions  annually  —  the 
first,  which  may  be  extended  30  days,  beginning  on  Sept. 
16  (the  great  national  holiday)  and  ending  on  Dec.  15,  and 
the  second,  which  maybe  prorogued  for  15  days,  convening 
on  the  1st  of  April  and  adjourning  on  the  last  day  of  May. 

The  Executive  Power  is  lodged  in  a  single  individual,  known 
as  the  President  (presidente)  of  the  United  Mexican  States, 
with  a  salary  of  $50,000  a  year.  There  is  also  a  Vice-President. 

The  Presidente  is  elected  indirectly  by  electors  chosen  by 
the  people.  His  term  of  office  is  six  years  (law  of  May  6, 
1904),  commencing  on  the  1st  day  of  Dec.  after  election.  By 
an  amendment  to  the  Constitution,  under  date  of  Dec.  20, 
1890,  he  may  be  reflected  indefinitely. 

The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  Jus- 
tice and  the  District  and  Circuit  Courts.  The  Government  of 
the  States  is  divided  into  the  same  branches  as  the  General 
Government.  The  States  are  divided  politically,  as  a  rule, 
into  districts  governed  by  a  jefe  politico,  or  a  prefect,  who  is 


6  MOUNTAINS  — LAKES 

responsible  to  the  governor  —  gobernador.  The  minor  divi- 
sions are  municipalidades;  the  local  authority  being  an  ayun- 
tamiento,  corresponding  to  the  town  council  in  the  U.  S.  A. 
The  main  clauses  of  the  Constitution,  with  respect  to  the 
rights  of  men,  are  similar  to  those  of  other  advanced  coun- 
tries. Aliens  enjoy  the  civil  rights  belonging  to  Mexicans,  but 
they  can  be  expelled  (Article  33)  from  the  country  if  they 
prove  to  be  pernicious  to  the  Government. 

Mexico  has  a  small  navy,  and  an  effective  army  of  about 
40,000  men.  The  normal  revenue  of  the  Government  is  about 
100  million  pesos ;  the  expenditures  amounting  to  about  93 
millions.  The  national  debt  is  about  $380,000,000.  Mexico's 
foreign  credit  is  high. 

The  Army  (ejcrcito)  is  composed  of  regular  and  auxiliary- 
troops  of  the  reserve;  the  strength  of  the  former  is  fixed  by 
law  at  30,000  men,  that  of  the  reserve  at  28,000,  and  that  of 
the  second  reserve  at  150,000.  The  infantry  is  armed  with 
Mauser  rifles  of  the  pattern  of  1901,  7mm.  calibre,  and  with 
"Porfirio  Diaz"  rifles;  the  cavalry  with  carbines  of  the  same 
pattern.  Schneider  rapid-fire  mounted  guns  are  used.  The  ef- 
fective strength  of  the  army  in  time  of  war  is  given  at  3,500 
officers,  120,000  infantry,  20,000  cavalry,  and  6,000  artillery. 
At  present  the  regular  army  establishment  is  made  up  of 
sections  quartered  at  different  points  in  the  Republic. 

The  Navy  (marina  de  guerra)  is  modest,  and  was  established 
simply  to  meet  the  requirements  of  coast  patrol  necessary  to 
a  country  at  peace  with  all.  The  personnel  of  the  navy  con- 
sists of  some  150  officers  and  about  350  men. 

Mexico  is  a  land  of  High  Mountains ;  it  is  estimated  that 
there  are  156  mts.  of  a  volcanic  character  scattered  through 
the  mt.  ranges  of  the  Repub.  The  following  are  the  highest: 

Name  Height                  States 

Orizaba  or  Citlaltepetl  (p.  496)  18,225  Vera  Cruz 

Popocatepetl    (p.  463)  17,782  Mexico 

Iztaccihuatl  (p.  464)  16,060  Mexico  and  Puebla 

Xinantecatl,  or  Nevado  de  Toluca  (p.  199)   15,000  Mexico 

Matlalcueyatl,  or  Malintzi  (p.  497)  14,740  Tlaxcala 

Ajusco  (p.  434)  13,612  Federal  District 

Nauchampatepetl  (p.  504)  13,403  Vera  Cruz 

Volcan  de  Colima  (p.  186)  12,782  Jalisco 

Pico  de  Tancitaro  (p.  224)  12,653  Michoacan 

Cerro  de  Patamban  (p.  224)  12,290 

Zempoaltepetl  (p.  541)  11,965  Oaxaca 

Los  Llanitos  (p.  145)  11,013  Guanajuato 

Pico  de  Quinceo  (p.  224)  10,835  Michoacan 

Gigante  (p.  145)  10,653  Guanajuato 

Lakes.  There  are  many  lakes  (lagos)  in  Mexico,  and  most  of 
them  are  high  among  the  mountains  or  on  the  great  central 
plateau.  As  a  rule  they  are  beautiful  sheets  of  water,  amid  at- 


GULF  OF  MEXICO  7 

tractive  surroundings.  The  chief  lakes  are  Chapala;  Patzcuaro: 
Cuitzeo;  Texcoco;  Zirahuen;  Yuririaptindaro;  Zipimeo  ana 
Tecacho;  and  the  Laguna  de  los  Caimanes. 

Very  few  bays  indent  the  coast.  Among  these  are  Ascen- 
sidn,  Espiritu  Santo,  and  Chetmul,  on  the  Yucatan  Peninsula ; 
Manzanillo,  on  the  Pacific;  and  Magdalena  and  others  in 
Lower  California.  The  east  coast  is  broken  by  extensive  Ja- 
goons  (lagunas)  like  that  of  Terminos  in  Campeche  State. 
The  great  Gulf  of  California  separates  the  peninsula  of  that 
name  from  the  main  portion  of  Mexico.  The  only  peninsulas 
are  Lower  California  and  Yucatan.  Some  islands  of  minor 
importance  lie  off  the  coasts. 

The  Mexican  River  System  is  neither  varied  nor  extens- 
ive. The  rugged  configuration  of  the  country  converts  most 
of  the  rivers  into  impetuous  torrents,  which  quickly  drain  the 
surface  of  the  table-land  and  form  innumerable  waterfalls  as 
they  plunge  downward  to  the  tierra  caliente,  on  their  way  to 
the  sea.  Even  the  longest  rivers  are  navigable  for  but  a  short 
distance.  Shallow  draught  steamboats  ply  inland  on  some  of 
the  southern  rivers  —  the  Usumacinta,  the  Coatzacoalcos,  etc. 
Sand-bars  obstruct  the  mouths  of  nearly  all  the  rivers  empty- 
ing into  the  ocean,  and  over  these  bars  but  three  or  four  feet  of 
water  is  found  at  low  tide.  The  best  known  river  (1,644  M. 
long)  is  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  which  forms  a  part  of  the 
boundary-line  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States. 

The  Gulf  of  (Golfo  de)  Mexico,  an  arm  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  United  States  and  on  the 
S.  and  W.  by  Mexico.  It  is  oval  in  form:  its  greatest  length  is 
from  E.  to  W.,  about  1,000  miles ;  from  N.  to  S.,  about  800  M. ; 
area  about  700,000  sq.  M.  It  has  a  continuous  coast-line  of 
about  3,000  M.  Its  maximum  depth  is  about  12,715  ft.,  and 
within  the  basin,  exclusive  of  the  submerged  coastal  plain,  the 
average  depth  is  about  9,000  ft.  The  outlet  of  the  Gulf  is  on 
the  E.  between  the  peninsulas  of  Yucatan  and  Florida,  a  dis- 
tance of  about  400  M.  The  Yucatan  channel  opens  into  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  and  the  Florida  Strait  enters  the  Atlantic. 

The  temperature  of  the  Gulf  is  from  8°  to  9°  higher  than  in 
the  Atlantic  in  the  same  latitude.  The  temperature  at  the 
point  of  greatest  depth  is  39|°  C.  The  chief  current  is  the 
Gulf  Stream  (a  name  applied  to  it  by  Benjamin  Franklin), 
which  enters  the  Gulf  through  the  Yucatan  Channel,  circles 
the  interior,  and  passes  out  through  the  Florida  Strait.  The 
basin  off  the  Mexican  coast  sinks  rapidly  to  the  submarine 
plain,  and  a  short  distance  from  the  shore  reaches  the  maxi- 
mum depth.  The  Bay  of  Campeche  is  the  largest  indenta- 
tion. The  level  of  the  Gulf  is  thought  to  be  a  trifle  higher  than 
that  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  which  may  account  for  the  great 
velocity  of  the  stream  (from  60  to  120  miles  per  day),  one  of 
the  strongest  on  record. 


8  POPULATION 

Health.  Mexico  is  as  healthy  as  any  country  similarly 
situated.  The  table-land,  or  Central  Plateau,  is  unusually 
salubrious,  and  the  natives  sometimes  reach  an  extreme  old 
age.  The  intelligent  traveller  always  takes  certain  precautions 
to  guard  against  diseases  prevalent  where  sanitary  devices  and 
hygienic  methods  are  lacking,  and  similar  measures  should  be 
adopted  while  in  certain  of  the  Mexican  towns  —  chiefly  in  the 
hot  lowlands.  The  one-time  great  scourges  of  tropical  Mexico, 
yellow  fever  (fiebre  amarillo)  and  cholera  (cdlera),  have  been 
permanently  eradicated,  but  some  of  the  coastal  towns  are  not 
always  free  from  malaria  (calenturas,  malaria)  and  typhoid 
(fiebre  tifoidea).  Typhus  (tifo)  is  sometimes  met  with,' and  is 
usually  traceable  to  indiscreet  eating  or  drinking. 


Population. 

Population.  The  population  of  the  Mexican  Republic  is 
about  15,000,000,  almost  equally  divided  between  males  and 
females.  Of  these,  more  than  8,000,000  who  have  reached 
their  majority  can  neither  read  nor  write.  The  census  of  1900 
recorded  8,000  persons  over  90  years  of  age,  and  700  over  100 
years,  out  of  the  (then)  total  population  of  13,605,819.  There 
are  12,000,000  of  Catholics,  of  whom  about  3,000  are  priests. 
Some  70,000  persons  profess  no  religious  belief,  and  50,000 
or  more  are  divided  among  the  ten  different  beliefs  (with  277 
ministers)  from  Protestant  to  Mahommedan,  thence  to  Con- 
fucianism and  Buddhism.  The  two  latter  beliefs  (with  Tao- 
ism) are  professed  by  most  of  the  ten  thousand  Chinese  in  the 
Republic,  while  the  Japanese,  of  whom  there  are  some  8,000, 
are  mostly  Shintoists.  Of  the  total  population  19%  are  of 
pure,  or  nearly  pure,  white  race;  43%  of  mixed,  and  38%  of 
Indian  race  (comp.  Language,  p.  xvi).  Of  the  mrsed  Indian 
races  only  a  small  portion  can  be  regarded  as  civilized.  They 
are  slowly  but  surely  merging  their  identity  with  that  of  their 
neighbors;  their  national  life  is  almost  gone,  child  mortality 
among  them  is  distressingly  high  —  albeit  the  women  are 
"  much  addicted  to  maternity  "  —  and  their  customs  —  which 
are  not  distinguished  for  pulchritude  —  aid  in  their  oblitera- 
tion. 

The  Indians  of  Mexico  enjoy  all  the  political  and  civil  rights 
of  born  Mexicans;  but  they  exercise  little  influence  on  the 
government  and  destiny  of  the  nation.  Special  laws  for  their 
protection  are  features  of  the  Mexican  code.  There  is  little  or 
no  anti-foreign  spirit  among  them.  Some  of  the  Indian  women 
—  not  all  of  whom  could  be  accused  of  extreme  cleanliness  — 
are  very  handsome,  with  large,  soft,  dark  eyes  and  good  fea- 
tures. 


POPULATION  9 

The  foreign  population  includes  the  natives  of  forty  or  more 
countries  and  numbers  over  100,000 ;  of  whom  there  are  30,000 
Americans  (who  are  in  the  majority),  20,000  Spaniards,  and 
about  5,000  British.  (American  capital  to  the  value  of  about 
$800,000,000  (gold)  is  invested  in  the  Republic,  and  the  Eng- 
lish interests  are  enormous.)  About  15,000  Americans  and 
3,000  or  more  British  (including  Canadians)  dwell  in  Mexico 
City.  This  number  is  on  the  increase. 

"  The  Mexican  of  to-day  has  the  blood  of  more  races  in  his 
veins  than  any  other  American.  Iberian,  Semite,  Hamite, 
Goth  and  Vandal,  Roman  and  Celt,  mingled  their  blood  in  that 
stream  of  brave  and  adventurous  men  who  first  set  eyes  on 
Yucatan  in  1517,  and  who  conquered  Mexico  in  1522.  Like 
Spain  from  the  remotest  time,  Mexico  soon  became  the  meet- 
ing-ground of  races,  of  peoples,  of  languages,  and  of  religion. 
Within  the  area  of  its  original  territory  there  were  more  fami- 
lies of  native  languages  than  in  all  the  Western  Hemisphere 
besides;  and,  to  complete  the  chain,  there  were  more  kinds 
and  grades  of  culture  there.1  The  Seri  Indians,  of  Sonora 
(p.  80),  are  as  abject  as  the  Fuegians,  while  the  Nahuatl  and 
Mayo-speaking  tribes  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico  and  of  Yucatan 
occupied  the  most  elevated  position  for  culture  in  the  New 
World. 

"The  origin  of  the  Mexican  aborigines  is  involved  in  that  of 
the  American  Indians,  since  within  the  present  boundaries 
of  the  Republic  are  gathered  representatives  of  every  zone 
from  the  Apache,  an  Athapascan,  whose  principal  home  is  in 
Alaska,  to  the  tribes  of  Oaxaca  and  Chiapas,  who  are  the  chil- 
dren of  a  torrid  clime.  There  are  now  in  Mexico  perhaps  ten 
times  more  Indians^  than  were  ever  at  any  time  within  the 
United  States  domain." 

The  linguistic  families  in  Mexico  are  as  follows: 

NAHUATLAN,  1,750,000.  The  tribes  of  this  stock  are  found 
in  almost  unbroken  continuity  from  Sinaloa  along  the  Pacific 
slope  to  the  border  line  of  Guatemala.  In  the  Valley  of  Mexico 
they  occupied  three  districts,  Tezcuco,  Tlacdpan,  and  the  an- 
cient city  of  Mexico.  This  family  —  known  as  Aztec,  or  Mexi- 
can—  holds  the  most  prominent  position  in  the  history  of  the 
Conquest. 

PIMAN,  85,000.  The  Opata-Pima  of  the  later  Mexican  au- 
thorities occupy  the  western  northern  States,  as  far  south  as 
Guadalajara,  lying  along  the  Gulf  of  California,  except  where 
they  are  cut  off  by  the  Seri,  but  they  do  not  anywhere  ap- 
proach the  ocean,  being  intercepted  by  the  Nahuatlan  tribes. 
This  stock  now  occupies  the  site  of  the  Casas  Grandes  (p.  54) 
and  other  adobe  ruins,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
their  ancestors  were  the  builders  and  inhabitants  of  many 

1  Otis  T.  Mason,  Mexico.  International  Bureau  of  American  Repub- 
lics, Washington. 


10  POPULATION 

ancient  pueblos  and  cliff  sites,  both  in  Arizona  and  northern 
Mexico.  The  Tarahumares  (p.  57)  belong  to  this  family. 

YUMAN,  2,500.  The  lees  of  a  great  tribe  which  once  inhab- 
ited the  California  peninsula. 

SERIAN,  200.  Dwell  in  the  State  of  Sonora  (p.  80)  and  on 
Tiburon  Island  (p.  80)  off  the  coast. 

TARASCAN,  250,000.  Inhabitants  of  Michoacan,  Guerrero, 
and  Jalisco.  (Comp.  p.  181.) 

ZOQUEAN,  60,000.  Oaxaca  chiefly;  also  Guerrero  and 
Puebla.  Some  few  dwell  in  Chiapas  and  Tabasco,  between 
the  Mayan  and  Zapotecan  tribes.  Little  is  known  of  their 
origin,  save  a  tradition  of  their  having  come  from  the  South. 

TOTONACAN,  90,000.  N.  part  of  Puebla  and  Vera  Cruz; 
their  ancestors  were  the  first  natives  encountered  by  Cortes. 

ZAPOTECAN,  580,000.  Chiefly  in  Oaxaca;  also  in  Guerrero 
and  Puebla.  The  ruins  of  Mitla  (described  at  p.  534)  are 
within  their  territory,  with  their  wonderful  artificial  hills, 
stone  buildings,  fretworks  in  cut  stones,  columns,  and  wall 
paintings.  Benito  Pablo  Juarez  (p.  338)  was  a  Zapotec  Indian. 

OTOMIAN,  709,734.  A  widely  spoken  language  formerly. 
The  tribes  were  among  the  earliest  in  the  Valley  of  Mexico, 
and  they  spread  themselves  over  the  States  of  Guanajuato, 
Hidalgo,  Quere*taro  (their  special  habitat),  San  Luis  Potosf, 
and  Michoacan.  They  are  often  called  Serranos  (mountaineers) 
because  of  their  fondness  for  hilly  country. 

MAYAN,  400,000.  Yucatan,  Chiapas,  and  Vera  Cruz.  The 
advance  guard  of  New  World  progress.  Scholars  have  conse- 
crated their  lives  worthily  to  the  Maya  civilization.  ^  To  the 
Mayas  are  assigned  the  wonderful  ruins  of  Palenque,  in  Chia- 
pas, described  at  p.  567;  of  Copan,  in  Honduras,  and  of  Ux- 
mal  (p.  580)  and  Chichen-Itza  (p.  581),  in  Yucatan.  The 
42,000  Haustecas,  of  Vera  Cruz,  are  of  this  family. 

TEQUISTLATECAN,  31,000.  A  nondescript  tribe  dwelling, 
under  various  names,  in  Oaxaca. 

HUAVAN,  of  which  there  are  5,000,  dwell  in  Chiapas. 

ATHAPASCAN  (Apaches),  8,000,  in  northern  Chihuahua,  and 
the  southwest  of  the  U.  S.  A. 

The  above  families  are  widely  subdivided  and  as  widely 
scattered. 

For  further  information  under  this  head  consult  Mexico, 
International  Bureau  of  the  American  Republics,  Govern- 
ment Printing  Office,  Washington,  pp.  24  et  seq. ;  Native 
Races,  by  Hubert  Howe  Bancroft,  San  Francisco,  1883. 


CLIMATE  11 

Climate.  The  odd  physical  configuration  of  Mexico  gives  it 
many  temperatures  and  three  distinct  climates,  all,  curiously 
enough,  within  a  very  few  hours'  ride  of  one  another. 

The  relaxing  tierra  caliente  (hot  land)  begins  at  the  sea- 
coast  and  extends  inward  and  upward  to  an  altitude  of  about 
3,000  ft.,  where  the  air  is  usually  delightful,  with  a  yearly 
average  temperature  of  80°-88°  Fahr.  and  an  extreme  of  100°- 
105°.  The  best-known  towns  lying  along  this  littoral  are 
Merida  (p.  574),  Vera  Cruz  (p.  469),  Campeche  (p.  569),  and 
Tampico,  on  the  Gulf,  and  Guaymas  (p.  78),  Mazatlan  (p.  90), 
Manzanillo  (p.  188),  Acapulco  (p.  460),  and  Salina  Cruz  on  the 
Pacific.  The  winter  climate  (Dec.-Feb.)  of  these  places  is  ad- 
mirable —  like  early  May  days  in  the  Central  U.  S.  A.  —  but 
broken,  at  intervals,  by  furious  nortes  (p.  471),  which  lower  the 
temperature  and  chill  the  marrow  of  the  thin-blooded  inhab- 
itants. Oddly  enough,  the  summer  "  dog-days  "  (caniculares)  in 
Vera  Cruz  or  Guaymas  never  scorch  or  stew  one  as  do  the 
"gizzards  "  of  New  York.  The  cool  land  breeze  which  blows 
seaward  in  the  A.  M.  and  returns  at  nightfall  laden  with  salted 
ozone  and  coolness  makes  life  in  tropical,  white-clad  Vera 
Cruz,  for  example,  with  its  palms  and  balconies  and  long  mid- 
day siestas,  far  more  supportable  than  in  New  York  with  its 
houses  like  huge  furnaces  and  its  heat-radiating  streets. 

The  tierra  templada  (temperate  land)  lies  between  3, 200  and 
6,500  ft.,  with  an  average  all  the  year  temperature  of  73°-77° 
Fahr. ;  the  variation  during  a  season  may  not  be  more  than  6° 
or  8°.  The  finest  of  the  Mexican  climates  is  found  between 
these  elevations.  The  immunity  from  heavy  frosts  is  as  com- 
plete as  that  from  extreme  humidity,  noxious  insects,  and 
sudden  temperature  changes.  Dryness  is  the  emphatic  qual- 
ity, with  freedom  in  the  dry  season  (Oct.-May)  from  malaria 
and  a  perpetual  exemption  from  the  keen,  cold  winds  of  the 
higher  altitudes  and  the  hygienic  deficiencies  of  the  maritime 
regionsT~Semi-tropical  products  thrive  side  by  side  with  those 
of  the  tropics,  and  there  are  farms  where  wheat  and  sugar- 
cane grow  almost  within  touch  of  each  other.  ^Certain  of  the 
towns  in  this  favored  zone  are  natural,  open-air  sanitariums, 
and  the  warm,  still  days  and  cool,  sleepful  nights  are  tonics 
which  bring  many  a  sufferer  (particularly  from  tuberculosis) 
back  to  health.  One  of  these  health  stations  is  Guadalajara 
(p.  161),  with  an  almost  perfect  climate  aptly  described  as 
"June  with  October  touches/'  Other  towns  in  this  land  of 
eternal  spring,  noted  for  a  climate  particularly  suited  to  in- 
valids fearsome  of  quick  temperature  changes,  are  Orizaba 
(p.  489),  Oaxaca  (p.  528),  Cuauhtla  (p.  466),  Cuernavaca  (p. 
436),  etc.  The  latter  place  is  celebrated  for  its  attractive 
hotels ;  as  being  one  of  the  most  favored  winter  stations  north 
of  the  Equator ;  and  for  some  of  the  finest  views  in  the  Repub- 
lia  It  is  unusually  free  from  cold  waves  (ondas  frias)  and  from 


12  CLIMATE 

brusque  climatic  changes.,  .The  gradation  of  the  seasons  is  so 
gentle  that  the  trees  take  on  their  new  spring  leaves  while 
still  green  with  the  verdure  of  the  old  year 

The  tierra  fria  (cold  country)  —  cold  only  in  comparison  to 
the  heat  at  the  coast  —  rises  above  the  6,500  ft.  level  and  ex- 
tends to  snow-line  (12,460  ft.  in  the  tropics);  above  this  the 
thermometer  often  sinks  below  freezing-point.  The  average 
temperature  of  the  alleged  tierra  fria  is  59°-62°  Fahr.  with 
slight  changes  except  in  winter,  when  a  norte  may  bring  a 
light  snowfall  to  Mexico  City  and  topple  the  mercury  down  to 
30°  or  40°.  In  Toluca  and  the  high  mountain  towns,  the  ther- 
mometer has  been  known  to  register  20°.fl'he  rainfall  in  this 
region  is  only  one  fifth  as  much  as  that  of  the  temperate  zone. 
In  the  sunny  pockets  and  sheltered  valleys  of  the  tierra  fria 
the  vegetation  is  often  quite  luxuriant^} 

Plants  will  grow  on  the  southern  si3eof  a  mountain  which 
has  snow  on  the  opposite  side.  The  sky  over  all  the  zones  is 
noted  for  its  unrivalled  blue,  and  on  any  winter  day  he  who 
seeks  the  sun  in  the  morning  will  seek  the  shadows  at  noon. 
From  the  elevated  mountain  peaks  one  may  look  down  past 
the  temperate  to  the  torrid  zone ;  from  the  frozen  cone  of  some 
volcano  to  the  warm  waters  of  the  Gulf,  embracing  in  one  view 
all  that  class  of  vegetation  which  thrives  between  the  Arctic 
Ocean  and  the  Equator. 

The  climate  of  Mexico  City  is  usually  mild,  but  exhilarat- 
ing; ranging  during  the  year  from  35°  to  75°  Fahr.  with  a 
mean  temperature  of  65°.  Excepting  in  the  winter,  its  great- 
est variations  are  generally  between  day  and  night  on  the 
same  day.  The  tropical  heat  of  the  latitude  is  tempered  by 
the  altitude.  Throughout  the  year  the  nights  are  delightfully 
cool,  and  a  pair  of  heavy  blankets  are  always  requisite  to  com- 
fortable sleep.  During  the  short  winter  (Dec.- Feb.)  the  tem- 
perature is  apt  to  be  affected  by  the  northers  which  blow 
down  the  Gulf.  These  monsoons  of  the  western  hemisphere 
sometimes  precipitate  light  snowfalls  or  hail-storms  in  the 
capital,  but  the  snow  vanishes  with  the  first  touch  of  sunshine. 
Rarely  a  winter  day  passes  without  some  sunshine,  and  then 
one  instinctively  seeks  the  shady  side  of  the  street. 

The  altitude  is  unsuitable  for  snakes,  scorpions,  and  similar 
reptilia.  It  affects  culinary  operations,  and  recipes  which  give 
good  results  at  sea-level  have  to  be  adjusted  to  suit  the  ele- 
vation. Food  values  decrease  by  one-third,  it  is  said. 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  13 

History  and  Races. 

The  authentic  History  of  Mexico  practically  begins  for  us 
mth  the  advent  of  the  bold  Castilian  free  lances  who  under 
the  Great  Captain,  Hernan  Cortez,  came  so  jauntily  to  the  New 
World  in  search  of  militant  adventure  in  the  dim  twilight  of 
our  time.  Although  these  iron- willed  men  began  at  once  to 
enact  one  of  the  most  enthralling  historical  dramas  that  can 
be  found  in  the  annals  of  any  country,  accompanying  them 
were  certain  religious  bigots  who  made  their  own  names  as 
infamous  and  as  unforgettable  as  the  Spanish  cavaliers,  by 
deeds  of  appealing  heroism,  made  theirs  forever  renowned. 
Blindly  superstitious,  and  confessedly  intolerant  of  the  intel- 
lectual advancement  which  characterized  the  civilization  dis- 
covered by  the  Spaniards  in  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  such  men 
as  Father  Landa,  the  historian  of  the  Spanish  invasion  of 
Yucatan,  and  Juan  de  Zumdrraga,  the  first  Bishop  of  Mexico, 
assembled  all  the  Maya  and  Nahuatl  picture-writings,  manu- 
scripts, books  on  medicine,  astronomy,  chronology,  geology, 
and  theology,  piled  them  high  in  the  market-place  of  the  dif- 
ferent Indian  strongholds,  and  reduced  them  all  to  ashes. 

At  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  Iberians  great  quantities 
of  manuscripts  were  treasured  up  in  the  national  archives  of 
Tezcuco,  in  Andhuac,  for  this  centre  was  one  of  the  most  cul- 
tivated capitals  of  the  great  Indian  Confederacy.  Numerous 
persons  were  employed  in  picture-writing  and  in  the  making 
of  books  and  codices,  and  the  dexterity  of  their  operations  ex- 
cited the  astonishment  of  the  Spaniards.  Unfortunately  this 
was  mingled  with  other  and  unworthy  feelings.  The  strange, 
unknown  characters  on  them  excited  suspicion.  They  were 
looked  on  as  magic  scrolls,  and  were  regarded  in  the  same  light 
with  the  idols  and  temples,  as  symbols  of  a  pestilent  supersti- 
tion that  must  be  extirpated.  Their  destruction  was  an  irre- 
parable loss  which  mere  words  fail  to  express,  for  with  the  In- 
dian libraries  perished  the  records  of  the  first  Americans.  For- 
tunately for  posterity  sufficient  has  been  learned  of  the  early 
races  to  convince  one  that ' '  of  all  that  extensive  empire  which 
once  acknowledged  the  authority  of  Spain  in  the  New  World, 
no  portion,  for  interest  and  importance,  can  be  compared  with 
Mexico:  and  this  equally,  whether  we  consider  the  variety 
of  its  soil  and  climate;  the  inexhaustible  stores  of  its  mineral 
wealth;  its  scenery,  grand  and  picturesque  beyond  example; 
the  character  of  its  ancient  inhabitants,  not  only  far  surpass- 
ing in  intelligence  that  of  the  other  North  American  races, 
but  reminding  us,  by  their  monuments,  of  the  primitive  civili- 
zation of  Egypt  and  Hindustan;  or,  lastly,  the  peculiar  cir- 
cumstances of  its  Conquest,  adventurous  and  romantic  as  any 
legend  devised  by  Norman  or  Italian  bard  of  chivalry.'7 
(Prescott.) 

The  merciful  hand  of  Providence  has  bestowed  on  the 


14  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

Mexicans  a  magnificent  land,  abounding  in  resources  of  all 
kinds  —  a  land  where  none  ought  to  be  poor,  and  where  misery 
ought  to  be  unknown  —  a  land  whose  products  and  riches  of 
every  kind  are  abundant,  and  as  varied  as  they  are  rich. 
It  is  a  country  endowed  to  profusion  with  every  gift  that 
man  can  desire  or  envy;  all  the  metals  from  gold  to  lead; 
every  sort  of  climate  from  perpetual  snow  to  tropical  heat, 
and  inconceivable  fertility.  (Lempriere,  Notes  on  Mexico.) 

"The  history  of  ancient  Mexico  is  substantially  that  of  the 
Valley  of  Mexico  (Vole  of  Andhuac) ,  that  beautiful  spot  where 
once  beat  the  heart  of  the  great  Aztec  Empire.  Midway 
across  the  continent,  somewhat  nearer  the  Pacific  than  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  it  stands  at  an  elevation  of  nearly  7,500  ft.; 
oval  in  form,  about  37  leagues  in  circumference,  and  encom- 
passed by  a  towering  rampart  of  porphyritic  rock,  which 
nature  seems  to  have  provided,  though  ineffectually,  tp  pro- 
tect it  from  invasion.  The  soil,  once  carpeted  with  a  beautiful 
verdure  and  thickly  sprinkled  with  stately  trees,  is  often  bare, 
and,  in  many  places,  white  with  the  incrustation  of  salts 
caused  by  the  draining  of  the  waters.  Five  lakes  once  spread 
over  the  valley,  occupying  one  tenth  of  its  surface.  On  the 
opposite  border  of  the  largest  of  these  basins  stood  the  cities 
of  Tenochtitldn  and  Tezcuco,  the  capitals  of  the  two  most 
potent  and  flourishing  States  of  Andhuac,  whose  history, 
with  that  of  the  mysterious  races  that  preceded  them  in  the 
country,  exhibits  some  of  the  nearest  approaches  to  civiliza- 
tion to  be  met  with  anciently  on  the  North  American  con- 
tinent. 

"Of  these  races  the  most  conspicuous  were  the  Toltecs 
(people  of  Tollari).  Advancing  from  a  northerly  direction, 
they  entered  the  territory  of  Andhuac,  probably  before  the 
close  of  the  seventh  century.  They  established  their  capital 
at  Tula,  50  M.  north  of  the  Mexican  Valley,  and  the  remains 
of  extensive  buildings  are  to  be  discerned  there  now.  The 
noble  ruins  of  religious  and  other  edifices,  still  to  be  seen  in 
various  parts  of  Mexico,  are  referred  to  this  people,  whose 
name,  Toltec,  has  passed  into  a  synonym  for  architect.  They 
were  well  instructed  in  agriculture  and  many  of  the  most  use- 
ful mechanical  arts;  were  nice  workers  of  metal;  invented 
the  complex  arrangement  of  time  adopted  by  the  Aztecs 
(people  of  Aztlan),  and  were  the  true  founders  of  the  civiliza- 
tion which  distinguished  this  part  of  the  continent  in  later 
times.'*  (Prescott.) 

After  a  period  of  four  centuries  the  Toltecs  disappeared 
from  the  land  as  silently  and  mysteriously  as  they  had  entered 
it.  From  their  legends  and  their  shadowy  history  the  belief  has 
been  detached  that  pulque  (p.  Ixxxii),  which  was  discovered 
by  them,  caused  their  downfall  and  final  disappearance. 

After  the  lapse  of  another  hundred  years,  a  numerous  and 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  15 

rude  tribe,  called  the  Chichimecs  (people  of  Chichimecan  — 
place  of  dogs)  entered  the  deserted  country  from  the  regions 
of  the  far  North-west.1  *'  They  were  speedily  followed  by  other 
races,  of  higher  civilization,  perhaps  of  the  same  family  with 
the  Toltecs,  whose  language  they  appear  to  have  spoken.  The 
most  noted  of  these  were  the  Aztecs,  or  Mexicans  (Mexico), 
and  the  Acolhuas  ('people  at  the  bend  of  the  water7).  The 
latter,  better  known  in  later  times  by  the  name  of  Tezcucans 
(from  their  capital,  Tezcuco,  on  the  eastern  border  of  the 
Mexican  lake) ,  were  peculiarly  fitted,  by  their  comparatively 
mild  religion  and  manners,  for  receiving  the  tincture  of  civil- 
ization which  could  be  derived  from  the  few  Toltecs  that 
still  remained  in  the  country.  This,  in  their  turn,  they  com- 
municated to  the  barbarous  Chichimecs,  a  large  portion  of 
whom  became  amalgamated  with  the  new  settlers  as  one 
nation. 

"The  Mexicans  came  also  from  the  remote  regions  of  the 
North  —  the  populous  hive  of  nations  in  the  New  World  — 
and  arrived  on  the  borders  of  Andhuac  toward  the  beginning 
of  the  14th  cent.,  some  time  after  the  occupation  of  the  land 
by  the  kindred  races.  For  a  long  time  they  did  not  establish 
themselves  in  any  permanent  residence,  but  continued  shifting 
their  quarters  to  different  parts  of  the  Mexican  Valley.  After 
a  series  of  wanderings  and  adventures  they  at  length  halted 
on  the  south-western  border  of  the  principal  lake,  in  the  year 
1325.  They  there  beheld,  perched  on  the  stem  of  a  prickly 
pear,  which  shot  out  from  the  crevices  of  a  rock  that  was 
washed  by  the  waves,  a  royal  eagle  of  extraordinary  size  and 
beauty,  with  a  serpent  in  its  talons,  and  his  broad  wings 
opened  to  the  rising  sun.  They  hailed  the  auspicious  omen, 
announced  by  an  oracle  as  indicating  the  site  of  their  future 
city,  and  laid  its  foundations  by  sinking  piles  into  the  shallows : 
for  the  low  marshes  were  half-buried  under  water.  On  these 
they  erected  their  light  fabrics  of  reeds  and  rushes  (tules), 
and  sought  a  precarious  subsistence  from  fishing,  as  well  as 
the  cultivation  of  such  simple  vegetables  as  they  could  raise  on 
their  floating  gardens.  The  place  was  called  Tenochtitldn  2 
in  token  of  its  miraculous  origin,  though  only  known  to  Euro- 
peans by  its  other  name  of  Mexico,  derived  from  their  war- 
god  Mexitli." 

a.  Montezuma  and  his  Realm.  "After  a  lapse  of  two 
centuries  we  find  the  descendants  of  these  people  cemented 
into  a  strong  and  partly  civilized  nation,  dwelling  in  palaces,  in 
the  midst  of  a  barbaric  pomp  and  splendor  allied  to  the  Ori- 
ental or  Asiatic.  From  his  palace  in  Tenochtitldn  the  King 
Montezuma  wielded  his  sceptre  over  a  wide  and  populous 

1  It  is  highly  probable  that  these  were  Chinese. 

*  Tenochtitldn,  fromteZZ,  stone,  tlan,  on,  and  nochtli,  cactus,  is  sup- 
posed also  to  have  been  named  for  the  founder  of  the  city,  Tenoch. 


16  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

domain.  Many  rich  cities  and  villages  dotted  the  Crown 
possessions,  and  the  annual  tributes  received  therefrom  com- 
prised cotton  dresses  and  mantles  of  feather-work,  exquisitely 
made;  ornamented  armor,  vases  and  plates  of  gold ;  gold-dust, 
bands,  and  bracelets;  crystal,  gilt,  and  varnished  jars  and 
goblets;  bells,  arms,  and  utensils  of  copper;  reams  of  maguey 
paper;  grain,  fruits,  copal,  amber,  cochineal,  cacao,  wild 
animals,  and  birds,  timber,  mats,  etc.  Garrisons  were  estab- 
lished in  the  larger  cities,  and  new  territory  was  constantly 
being  added  to  the  already  extensive  domains  of  the  empire. 
Communication  was  maintained  with  the  remotest  parts  of 
the  country  by  means  of  swift  couriers.  Post-houses  were 
established  on  the  great  roads,  about  two  leagues  distant  from 
each  other.  The  courier,  bearing  his  despatches  in  the  form 
of  a  hieroglyphical  painting,  ran  with  them  to  the  first 
station,  where  they  were  taken  by  another  messenger  and 
carried  forward  to  the  next,  and  so  on  until  they  reached  the 
capital.  Fresh  fish  was  frequently  served  at  Montezuma's 
table  in  24  hours  from  the  time  it  had  been  taken  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  260  miles  from  the  capital. 

"  A  vast  army  was  maintained;  the  dress  of  the  warriors 
being  picturesque  and  often  magnificent.  Their  bodies  were 
covered  with  a  close  vest  of  quilted  cotton,  so  thick  as  to  be 
impenetrable  to  the  light  missiles  of  Indian  warfare.  This 
garment  was  so  light  and  serviceable  that  it  was  adopted  by 
the  Spaniards.  The  wealthier  chiefs  sometimes  wore  a  cuirass 
made  of  thin  plates  of  gold  and  silver.  Over  it  was  thrown  a 
surcoat  of  the  gorgeous  feather-work  in  which  they  excelled. 
Their  helmets  were  sometimes  of  wood,  fashioned  like  the 
heads  of  wild  animals,  and  sometimes  of  silver,  on  the  top  of 
which  waved  a  panache  of  variegated  plumes,  sprinkled  with 
precious  stones  and  ornaments  of  gold. 

''They  wore  also  collars,  bracelets,  and  ear-rings  of  the  same  rich  ma- 
terials. Their  weapons  were  the  deadly  maquahuitl  and  the  javelin.  The 
style  and  quality  of  the  dress  of  the  inhabitants  of  Andhuac  were  superior 
to  those  of  the  folks  along  the  seacoast.  The  tilmantli,  or  cloak,  thrown 
over  the  shoulders  and  tied  around  the  neck,  made  of  cotton  of  different 
degrees  of  fineness,  according  to  the  condition  of  the  wearer,  and  the 
ample  sash  around  the  loins,  were  often  wrought  in  rich  ana  elegant 
figures  and  edged  with  a  deep  fringe  or  tassel.  As  the  weather  grew  cool, 
mantles  of  fur  or  of  the  gorgeous  feather-work  were  sometimes  substi- 
tuted. The  latter  combined  the  advantages  of  great  warmth  and  beauty. 
The  Mexicans  had  also  the  art  of  spinning  a  fine  thread  of  the  hair  of  the 
rabbit  and  other  animals,  which  they  wove  into  a  delicate  web  that  took 
a  permanent  dye. 

"  The  women  wore  several  skirts  or  petticoats  of  different  lengths,  with 
highly  ornamented  borders,  and  sometimes  over  them  loose,  flowing 
robes,  which  reached  to  the  ankles.  These,  also,  were  made  of  cotton,  for 
the  wealthier  classes,  of  a  fine  texture,  prettily  embroidered.  The  Aztec 
women  had  their  faces  exposed,  and  their  dark,  raven  tresses  floated 
luxuriantly  over  their  shoulders,  revealing  features  which,  although  of 
dusky  or  rather  cinnamon  hue,  were  not  unfrequently  pleasing,  while 
touched  with  the  serious,  even'sad  expression  characteristic  of  the  national 
physiognomy. 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  17 

"  The  Palace  of  Montezuma  occupied  one  side  of  what  Is 
now  the  Plaza  Mayor,  of  the  new  city.  This  pile  of  buildings 
spread  over  an  extent  of  ground  so  vast  that,  as  one  of  the 
conquerors  said,  '  its  terraced  roof  might  have  afforded  ample 
room  for  thirty  knights  to  run  their  courses  in  a  regular 
tourney.'  Its  interior  decorations  were  gorgeous;  its  walls 
were  covered  with  fanciful  draperies,  its  roofs  inlaid  with 
cedar  and  other  odoriferous  woods. 

"The  tianguiz,  or  GREAT  MARKET,  was  usually  the  centre 
of  animation  in  ancient  Andhuac,  arid  there  the  customs  of  the 
people  could  be  best  observed.  The  market-place  was  sur- 
rounded by  deep  porticoes,  and  the  several  articles  had  each 
its  own  quarter  allotted  to  it.  According  to  Cortes,  who  was 
astonished  at  the  multitudes  assembled  there,  the  market- 
place was  thrice  as  large  as  the  celebrated  square  of  Sala- 
manca. Here  might  be  seen  cotton  piled  up  in  bales,  or  manu- 
factured into  dresses  and  articles  of  domestic  use,  as  tapestry, 
Curtains,  coverlets,  and  the  like.  The  richly  stained  and  nice 
fabrics  reminded  Cortes  o£  the  silk-market  of  Granada.  There 
was  the  quarter  assigned  to  the  goldsmiths,  where  the  purchaser 
might  find  various  articles  of  ornament  or  use  formed  of  the 
precious  metals,  or  curious  toys,  made  in  imitation  of  birds 
and  fishes,  with  scales  and  feathers  alternately  of  gold  and 
silver,  and  with  movable  heads  and  bodies.  These  fantastic 
little  trinkets  were  often  garnished  with  precious  stones,  and 
showed  a  patient,  puerile  ingenuity  in  their  manufacture,  like 
that  of  the  Chinese. 

"  In  this  market  were  met  together  traders  from  all  parts, 
with  the  products  and  manufactures  peculiar  to  their  coun- 
tries; the  goldsmiths  of  Azcapotzalco,  the  potters  and  jewellers 
of  Cholula,  the  painters  of  Tezcuco,  the  stone-cutters  of  Tena- 
jocan,  the  hunters  of  Xilotepec,  the  fishermen  of  Cuitlahuac, 
the  fruiterers  of  the  tierra  caliente,  the  mat  and  chair  makers  of 
Quauhtitlan,  and  the  florists  of  Xochimilco,  —  all  busily  engaged 
in  recommending  their  wares  and  chaffering  with  purchasers. 

"In  an  adjoining  quarter  were  collected  specimens  of 
pottery,  coarse  and  fine,  vases  of  wood  elaborately  carved, 
varnished  or  gilt,  of  curious  and  sometimes  graceful  forms. 
There  were  also  hatchets  made  of  copper  alloyed  with  tin, 
which  the  natives  used  instead  of  iron.  The  soldier  found  here 
all  the  implements  of  his  trade ;  the  casque  fashioned  into  the 
head  of  some  wild  animal,  with  its  grinning  defences  of  teeth, 
and  bristling  crest  dyed  with  the  rich  tint  of  the  cochineal; 
the  escaupil  or  quilted  doublet  of  cotton,  the  rich  surcoat 
of  feather-mail,  and  weapons  of  all  sorts,  copper-headed 
lances  and  arrows,  and  the  broad  maquahuitl  with  its  sharp 
blades  of  itzli  (obsidian).  Here  were  razors  and  mirrors  of 
this  same  hard  and  polished  material,  which  served  so  many 
of  the  purposes  of  steel  with  the  Aztecs.  In  the  square  were 


18  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

also  to  be  found  booths  occupied  by  barbers,  who  used  these 
same  razors  in  their  vocation.  For  the  Mexicans,  contrary 
to  the  popular  and  erroneous  notions  respecting  the  aborigines 
of  the  New  World,  had  beards,  though  scanty  ones.  Other 
shops  and  booths  were  tenanted  by  apothecaries,  well  provided 
with  drugs,  roots,  and  different  medicinal  preparations.  In 
other  places  again,  blank  books  or  maps  for  the  hieroglyphical 
picture-writing  were  to  be  seen,  folded  together  like  fans, 
and  made  of  cotton,  skins,  or  more  commonly  the  fibre  of  the 
agave,  the  Aztec  papyrus. 

"Animals,  both  wild  and  tame,  were  offered  for  sale,  and 
near  them,  perhaps,  a  gang  of  slaves  with  collars  round  their 
necks,  intimating  they  were  likewise  on  sale.  The  display 
of  provisions  was  also  an  attractive  feature  of  the  great 
tianguiz.  There  were  meats  of  all  kinds,  domestic  poultry, 
game  from  the  neighboring  mountains,  fish  from  the  lakes 
and  streams,  fruits  in  all  the  delicious  abundance  of  these 
temperate  regions,  green  vegetables,  and  the  unfailing  maize. 
There  was  many  a  viand,  too,  ready  dressed,  which  sent  up  its 
savory  steams  provoking  the  appetite  of  the  idle  passenger, 
pastry,  bread  of  the  Indian  corn  (maize),  cakes,  and  confec- 
tionery. Along  with  these  were  to  be  seen  cooling  or  stimulat- 
ing beverages,  the  spicy  foaming  chocolatl,  with  its  delicate 
aroma  of  vanilla,  and  the  inebriating  pulque,  the  fermented 
juice  of  the  aloe.  All  these  commodities,  and  every  stall 
and  portico,  were  set  out,  or  rather  smothered,  with  flowers, 
showing  —  on  a  much  greater  scale,  indeed  —  a  taste  similar 
to  that  displayed  in  the  modern  markets  of  modern  Mexico. 

"  The  Spaniards  often  visited  the  place,  and  no  one  states 
the  amount  of  people  seen  in  the  tianguiz  at  less  than  forty 
thousand.  Every  fifth  day  the  city  swarmed  with  a  motley 
crowd  of  strangers,  not  only  from  the  vicinity,  but  from  many 
leagues  around ;  the  causeways  were  thronged,  and  the  lake 
was  darkened  by  canoes  filled  with  traders  flocking  to  the 
great  market.  It  resembled,  indeed,  the  periodical  fairs  in 
Europe,  not  as  they  exist  now,  but  as  they  existed  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages. 

"There  were  amongst  us,"  says  the  chronicler  Bernal  Diaz, 
"soldiers  who  had  been  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  — in 
Constantinople  and  in  Rome  and  through  all  Italy,  —  and 
who  said  that  a  market-place  so  large,  so  well  ordered  and 
regulated,  and  so  filled  with  people,  they  had  never  seen." 

The  GREAT  TEOCALLI,  in  the  midst  of  a  vast  area  (on  the 
site  of  the  present  cathedral),  was  one  of  the  "sights"  of  the 
ancient  city.  It  was  constructed  by  AHUIZOTL,  who  celebrated 
its  dedication,  in  1486,  by  a  great  hecatomb  of  victims,  esti- 
mated at  20,000.  It  was  encompassed  by  a  wall  of  lime  and 
stone,  about  8  ft.  high,  ornamented  on  the  outer  side  by  figures 
of  serpents  (a  common  emblem  in  the  sacred  sculpture  of 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  19 

Andhuac)  raised  in  relief,  which  gave  it  the  name  of  coatepantli, 
or  wall  of  serpents.  This  wall,  which  was  quadrangular,  was 
pierced  by  huge,  battlemented  gateways,  opening  on  the 
four  principal  streets  of  the  capital.  Over  each  of  the  gates 
was  a  kind  of  arsenal,  filled  with  arms  and  warlike  gear. 
Adjoining,  were  barracks,  garrisoned  by  ten  thousand  soldiers, 


.  pyramidal  i 

and  pebbles,  coated  on  the  outside  with  hewn  stones.  It  was 
square,  with  its  sides  facing  the  cardinal  points.  It  was  divided 
into  five  bodies  or  stories,  each  one  receding  so  as  to  be  of 
smaller  dimensions  than  that  immediately  below  it.  The 
ascent  was  made  by  a  flight  of  steps  on  the  outside,  which 
reached  to  the  narrow  terrace  or  platform  at  the  base  of  the 
second  story,  passing  quite  round  the  building,  when  a  second 
stairway  led  to  a  similar  landing  at  the  base  of  the  third.  The 
breadth  of  this  walk  was  just  so  much  space  as  was  left  by 
the  retreating  story  next  above  it.  From  this  construction 
the  visitor  was  obliged  to  pass  round  the  whole  edifice  four 
times  in  order  to  reach  the  top.  "This  had  a  most  imposing 
effect  in  the  religious  ceremonials,  when  the  pompous  pro- 
cession of  priests  with  their  wild  minstrelsy  came  sweeping 
round  the  huge  sides  of  the  pyramid,  as  they  rose  higher  and 
higher,  in  the  presence  of  gazing  multitudes,  toward  the 
summit.  The  first  object  that  met  the  view  on  reaching  the 
summit,  was  a  large  block  of  jasper  —  the  identical  sacrificial 
stone  now  preserved  in  the  National  Museum.  At  the  other 
end  of  the  area,  which  was  paved  with  broad  flat  stones,  were 
two  towers  or  sanctuaries,  consisting  of  three  stories,  the 
lower  one  of  stone  and  stucco,  the  two  upper  of  wood  elabor- 
ately carved.  In  the  lower  division  stood  the  images  of  their 
gods ;  the  apartments  above  were  filled  with  utensils  for  their 
religious  services,  and  with  the  ashes  of  some  of  their  Aztec 
princes,  who  had  fancied  this  airy  sepulchre.  Before  each 
sanctuary  stood  an  altar,  with  that  undying  fire  upon  it,  the 
extinction  of  which  boded  as  much  evil  to  the  empire  as  that 
of  the  Vestal  flame  would  have  done  in  ancient  Rome.  Here, 
also,  was  the  huge  cylindrical  drum  made  of  serpents'  skins, 
and  struck  only  on  extraordinary  occasions,  when  it  sent  forth 
a  melancholy  sound  that  might  be  heard  for  miles,  —  a  sound 
of  woe  in  after-times  to  the  Spaniards. 

"  From  the  summit  of  the  teocalli  a  splendid  view  of  the  city 
could  be  had.  Below  lay  the  ancient  metropolis  spread  out 
like  a  map,  with  its  streets  and  canals  intersecting  each  other 
at  right  angles,  its  terraced  roofs  blooming  like  so  many 
parterres  of  flowers.  Every  place  seemed  alive  with  business 
and  bustle ;  canoes  glanced  up  and  down  the  canals,  the  streets 
were  crowded  with  people  in  their  gay,  picturesque  costumes, 


20  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

while  from  the  market-place  a  confused  hum  of  many  sounds 
and  voices  rose  upon  the  air.  One  could  distinctly  trace  the 
symmetrical  plan  of  the  city,  with  its  principal  avenues  issu- 
ing, as  it  were,  from  the  four  gates  of  the  coatepanili,  and  con- 
necting themselves  with  the  causeways,  which  formed  the 
grand  entrances  to  the  capital.  This  regular  and  beautiful 
arrangement  was  imitated  in  many  of  the  inferior  towns, 
where  the  great  roads  converged  toward  the  chief  teocalli,  or 
cathedral,  to  a  common  focus. 

"One  could  discern  the  insular  position  of  the  metropolis 
bathed  on  all  sides  by  the  salt  floods  of  the  Tezcuco,  and  in 
the  distance  the  clear  fresh  waters  of  the  Chalco;  far  beyond 
stretched  a  wide  prospect  of  fields  and  waving  woods,  with 
the  burnished  walls  of  many  a  lofty  temple  rising  high  above 
the  trees  and  crowning  the  distant  hill-tops.  The  view  reached 
in  an  unbroken  line  to  the  very  base  of  the  circular  range  of 
mountains,  whose  frosty  peaks  glittered  as  if  touched  with  fire 
in  the  morning  ray;  while  long,  dark  wreaths  of  vapor,  roll- 
ing up  from  the  hoary  head  of  Popocatepetl,  told  that  the  de- 
stroying element  was,  indeed,  at  work  in  the  bosom  of  the 
beautiful  valley. 

"  The  interiors  of  the  sanctuaries  were  incrusted  on  the  sides 
with  stucco,  on  which  various  figures  were  sculptured,  repre- 
senting the  Mexican  calendar  and  the  priestly  ritual.  At  one 
end  of  the  salon  was  a  recess  with  a  roof  of  timber  richly 
carved  and  gilded.  Before  the  altar  stood  the  colossal  image 
of  Huitzilopochtli,  the  tutelary  deity  and  war-god  of  the  Az- 
tecs. His  countenance  was  distorted  into  hideous  lineaments 
of  symbolical  import.  In  his  right  hand  he  wielded  a  bow,  and  in 
his  left  a  bunch  of  golden  arrows,  which  a  mystic  legend  had 
connected  with  the  victories  of  his  people.  The  huge  folds  of 
a  serpent,  consisting  of  pearls  and  precious  stones,  were  coiled 
round  his  waist,  and  the  same  rich  materials  were  profusely 
sprinkled  over  his  person.  On  his  left  foot  were  the  delicate 
feathers  of  the  humming-bird,  which,  singularly  enough,  gave 
its  name  to  the  dread  deity.  (Comp.  p.  303.) 

"  One  of  the  sanctuaries  was  dedicated  to  a  milder  deity. 
This  was  Tezcatlipoca,  next  in  honor  to  that  invisible  Being, 
the  Supreme  God,  who  was  represented  by  no  image  and  con- 
fined by  no  temple.  It  was  Tezcatlipoca  who  created  the  world 
and  watched  over  it  with  a  providential  care.  He  was  repre- 
sented as  a  young  man,  and  his  image,  of  polished  black  stone, 
was  richly  garnished  with  gold  plates  and  ornaments,  among 
which  a  shield  burnished  like  a  mirror  was  the  most  characteris- 
tic emblem,  as  in  it  he  saw  reflected  all  the  doings  of  the  world." 

6.  The  Landing  of  the  Spaniards  and  their  March  to 
the  Capital.  The  first  landing  of  the  Spaniards  under  Cortes,1 

1  The  Great  Conqueror  was  born  at  Medellin,  Province  of  Estrema- 
dura,  Spain,  in  1485.  His  father,  Martin  Cortes  de  Monroy,  was  a  captain 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  21 

on  Mexican  soil,  was}  at  Tabasco  on  March  25,  1519.  After  a 
sharp  brush  with  the  natives,  in  which  the  invaders  came  out 
victorious,  they  sailed  along  the  coast  until  they  reached  the 
spot  where  the  castle  of  San  Juan  de  Ulua  now  stands  off  the 
mainland  of  Vera  Cruz.  There  they  cast  anchor  on  the  evening 
of  Thursday  of  Passion  Week;  the  next  morning,  April  21, 
being  Good  Friday,  Cortes  landed,  with  all  his  force,  on  the 


of  infantry.  His  mother  was  Dona  Catalina  Pizarro  Altamarino.  In  1504. 
when  19  years  old,  he  left  Spain  for  Cuba,  where  for  many  years  he  was 
a  prominent  figure  in  the  life  of  the  new  Crown  Colony.  He  sailed  for 
Mexico  Feb.  18,  1519,  and  perhaps  no  single  man  ever  exerted  a  greater 
influence  on  the  destiny  of  that  country.  He  died  in  the  village  of  Cos- 
tilleja  de  la  Cuesta,  near  Seville  (Spain),  Dec.  2,  1547,  in  the  63d  year 
of  his  age.  His  body  was  transported  to  the  chapel  of  the  monastery  of 
San  Isidro,  in  Seville,  where  it  was  laid  in  the  family  vault  of  the  Duke  of 
Medina  Sidonia.  In  1562  it  was  removed,  by  order  of  his  son,  Martin,  to 
New  Spain,  not,  as  directed  by  his  will,  to  Coyoacan,  but  to  the  monas- 
tery of  San  Francisco,  in  Tezcuco,  where  it  was  laid  by  the  side  of  a 
daughter,  and  of  his  mother.  In  1629  the  remains  were  again  removed; 
and  on  the  death  of  Don  Pedro,  fourth  '! Marquis  of  the  Valley,"  it  was 
decided  by  the  authorities  of  Mexico  to  transfer  them  to  the  church  of 
San  Francisco,  at  the  capital. 

".A  military  and  religious  procession  was  formed  with  the  Archbishop 
of  Mexico  at  its  head.  He  was  accompanied  by  the  great  dignitaries  of 
the  church  and  state,  and  the  members  of  the  Audiencia.  The  coffin  con- 
taining the  relics  of  Cortes  was  covered  with  black  velvet,  and  supported 
by  the  judges  of  the  royal  tribunals.  On  either  side  of  it  was  a  man  in 
complete  armor,  bearing,  on  the  right,  a  standard  of  pure  white,  with  the 
arms  of  Castile  embroidered  in  gold,  and,  on  the  left,  a  banner  of  black 
velvet,  emblazoned  in  like  manner  with  the  armorial  ensigns  of  the  house 
of  Cortes.  Behind  the  corpse  came  the  Viceroy  and  a  numerous  escort  of 
Spanish  cavaliers,  and  the  rear  was  closed  by  a  battalion  of  infantry, 
armed  with  pikes  and  arquebuses,  and  with  their  banners  trailing  on  the 
ground. 

'*  With  this  funeral  pomp,  by  the  sound  of  mournful  music,  and  the  slow 
beat  of  the  muffled  drum,  the  procession  moved  forward  till  it  reached 
the  capital.  The  gates  were  thrown  open  to  receive  the  mortal  remains  of 
the  hero  who,  a  century  before,  had  performed  there  such  prodigies  of 
valor." 

Yet  his  bones  were  not  permitted  to  rest  here  undisturbed ;  and  in  1 794 
they  were  removed  to  the  Hospital  de  Jesus  Nazareno  (p.  349).  The 
mouldering  relics  of  the  warrior,  now  deposited  in  a  crystal  coffin  secured 
by  bars  and  plates  of  silver,  were  laid  in  the  chapel,  and  over  them  was 
raised  a  simple  monument,  displaying  the  arms  of  the  family,  and  sur- 
mounted by  a  bronze  bust  (by  Tolsa)  of  the  Conqueror. 

In  1 823,  the  patriot  mob  of  the  capital,  in  its  zeal  to  commemorate  the 
era  of  national  independence,  and  its  detestation  of  the  "old  Span- 
iards," proposed  to  break  open  the  tomb  which  held  the  ashes  of  Cortes 
and  to  scatter  them  to  the  winds  I  The  authorities  declined  to  interfere 
on  the  occasion,  but  the  friends  of  the  family  entered  the  vault  by  night, 
and  secretly  removed  the  relics.  It  is  generally  believed  that  they  are 
now  in  the  family  vault  of  the  Duke  of  Terranova,  at  Palermo,  albeit 
some  persons  insist  that  they  are  still  in  Mexico,  hidden  in  some  place 
unknown  to  the  people. 

The  sword  of  Cortes  and  the  remains  of  the  banner  carried  by  him  in 
the  Conquest  of  Mexico  are  now  in  the  Museo  de  Artilleria  at  Madrid. 

The  student  interested  in  the  exploits  of  the  Great  Captain  should 
consult  Prescott's  Conquest  of  Mexico  ;  Bancroft's  History  of  Mexico  ; 
Gomara's  Historia  de  Mexico  (Gomara  was  the  leading  biographer  of 
Cortes) ;  Bernal  Diaz's  Verdadera  Historia  de  la  Conquista;  and  Oviedo's 
Historia  General  de  las  Indias. 


22  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

spot  where  now  stands  the  city  of  Vera  Cruz.  After  a  num- 
ber of  interviews  with  envoys  from  Montezuma  and  from  other 
chiefs,  Cortes  determined  to  march  to  the  Aztec  stronghold  — 
an  undertaking  which  historians  refer  to  as  one  of  the  "most 
daring  and  adventurous  in  history;  demonstrating,  in  a  high 
degree,  the  calibre  of  those  stern  and  iron-willed  conquerors." 

Sending  his  fleet,  which  lay  at  anchor  in  the  bay,  to  coast 
along  the  shore  to  the  north  as  far  as  Quiahuiztl&n,  Cortes  vis- 
ited in  person  the  town  of  Cempoalla,  made  allies  of  the  Toto- 
nacs  there,  then  returned  to  Vera  Cruz  to  complete  arrange- 
ments previous  to  his  departure  for  the  capital.  Recalling  his 
ships,  he  brought  on  shore  the  cordage,  sails,  iron,  etc.,  and 
ordered  these  to  be  sunk.  Then  this  little  handful  of  men,  on  a 
hostile  shore  and  arrayed  against  a  formidable  empire,  turned 
their  faces  toward  the  interior.  To  Mexico !  was  the  cry.  "  The 
destruction  of  his  fleet  by  Cortes  is  perhaps  the  most  remark- 
able passage  in  the  life  of  this  remarkable  man.  It  was  an 
act  of  resolution  that  has  few  parallels  in  history." 

When  Cortes  set  out  from  the  Totonac  capital,  his  forces 
amounted  to  400  foot  and  15  horse,  with  7  pieces  of  artillery. 
From  the  cacique  of  Cempoalla  he  obtained  1300  warriors, 
and  a  thousand  tamanes,  or  porters,  to  drag  the  guns  and 
transport  the  baggage.  He  took  forty  more  of  their  principal 
men  as  hostages,  as  well  as  to  guide  him  on  his  way  and 
to  serve  by  their  counsels  among  the  savage  tribes  he  was  to 
visit. 

"It  would  be  difficult  to  depict  the  impressions  of  the  Span- 
iards as  they  stood,  one  beautiful  morning,  and  gazed  from  the 
crest  of  the  Sierra  de  Ahualco  over  the  Valley  of  Mexico. 
Stretching  far  away  at  their  feet  were  seen  noble  forests  of 
oak,  sycamore,  and  cedar,  and  beyond,  yellow  fields  of  maize 
and  the  towering  maguey,  intermingled  with  orchards  and 
blooming  gardens.  In  the  cent  re  of  the  great  basin  were  beheld 
the  lakes,  their  borders  thickly  studded  with  towns  and 
hamlets,  and  in  the  midst  —  like  some  fair  empress  with  her 
coronal  of  pearls  —  the  fair  city  of  Mexico,  with  her  white 
towers  and  her  pyramidal  temples,  reposing,  as  it  were,  on  the 
bosom  of  the  waters  —  the  far-famed  '  Venice  of  the  Aztecs/ 

"The  8th  of  Nov.  was  a  conspicuous  day  in  the  history  of 
Mexico.  With  the  first  faint  streaks  of  dawn,  the  Spanish 
general  was  up,  mustering  his  followers.  They  gathered,  with 
beating  hearts,  under  their  respective  banners,  as  the  trumpet 
sent  forth  its  spirit-stirring  sounds  across  the  water  and  wood- 
land, till  they  died  in  distant  echoes  among  the  mountains. 
Cortes  with  his  little  body  of  horseflformed  a  sort  of  advance 
guard  to  the  army.  Then  came  the  Spanish  infantry.  The 
baggage  occupied  the  centre ;  and  the  rear  was  closed  by  the 
dark  files  of  Tlascalan  (p.  429)  warriors.  The  whole  number 
was  short  of  7,000 ;  of  which  less  than  400  were  Spaniards. 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  23 

"For  a  short  distance,  the  army  kept  along  the  narrow 
tongue  of  land  which  separates  the  Tezcucan  from  the  Chalcan 
waters,  when  it  entered  on  the  great  dike  (now  the  Tlalpan 
causeway),  which,  with  the  exception  of  an  angle  near  the 
commencement,  stretched  in  a  perfectly  straight  line  across 
the  salt  floods  of  Tezcuco  to  the  gates  of  the  capital. 

"  The  Spaniards  had  occasion  more  than  ever  to  admire  the 
mechanical  science  of  the  Aztecs,  in  the  geometrical  precision 
with  which  the  work  was  executed,  as  well  as  the  solidity  of 
its  construction.  It  was  composed  of  huge  stones  well  laid  in 
cement,  wide  enough  throughout  its  whole  extent  for  ten 
horsemen  to  ride  abreast. 

"  Everywhere  the  invaders  beheld  the  evidence  of  a  crowded 
and  thriving  population.  The  temples  and  principal  buildings 
of  the  adjacent  cities  were  covered  with  a  hard  white  stucco, 
which  glistened  like  enamel  in  the  level  beams  of  the  morning 
sun.  The  margin  of  the  great  basin  was  thickly  gemmed  with 
towns  and  hamlets.  The  water  was  darkened  by  swarms  of 
canoes  filled  with  Indians,  who  clambered  up  the  sides  of  the 
causeway  and  gazed  with  astonishment  at  the  strangers.  The 
white-skinned  warriors  in  their  glittering  armor,  the  mail- 
clad  horses  which  resembled  gigantic  demons  to  the  timid 
Indians,  the  camp  equipages  and  all  the  glittering  parapher- 
nalia of  Spanish  accoutrement,  presented  a  terrific  sight  to 
the  amazed  Indians,  and  awed  them  into  a  wondering  silence. 
At  the  distance  of  half  a  league  from  the  capital,  they  encoun- 
tered a  solid  work  or  curtain  of  stone,  which  traversed  the 
dike.  It  was  12  ft.  high,  was  strengthened  by  towers  at  the 
extremities,  and  in  the  centre  was  a  battlemented  gateway, 
which  opened  a  passage  to  the  troops.  It  was  called  the  Fort 
ofXolpc,  and  became  memorable  in  after-times  as  the  position 
occupied  by  Cortes  in  the  famous  siege  of  Mexico. 

"  Here  they  were  met  by  several  hundred  Aztec  chiefs,  who 
came  out  to  announce  the  approach  of  Montezuma,  and  to 
welcome  the  Spaniards  to  the  capital.  They  were  dressed  in 
the  fanciful  gala  costume  of  the  country,  with  the  maxtlatl, 
or  cotton  sash,  around  their  loins,  and  a  broad  mantle  of  the 
same  material,  or  of  the  brilliant  feather  embroidery,  flowing 
gracefully  down  from  their  shoulders.  On  their  necks  and 
arms  they  displayed  collars  and  bracelets  of  turquois  mosaic, 
with  which  delicate  plumage  was  curiously  mingled,  while  their 
ears,  under  lips,  and  occasionally  their  noses,  were  garnished 
with  pendants  formed  of  precious  stones,  or  crescents  of  fine 
gold.  Shortly  the  Spaniards  beheld  the  glittering  retinue  of 
the  emperor  emerging  from  the  great  street  which  led  then, 
as  it  still  does,  through  the  heart  of  the  city.  Amidst  a  crowd 
of  Indian  nobles,  preceded  by  three  officers  of  state  bearing 
golden  wands,  they  saw  the  royal  palanquin  blazing  with 
burnished  gold.  It  was  borne  on  the  shoulders  of  nobles,  and 


24  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

over  it  a  canopy  of  gaudy  feather-work,  powdered  with  jewels 
and  fringed  with  silver,  was  supported  by  four  attendants  of 
the  same  rank. 

"Montezuma  wore  the  girdle  and  ample  square  tilmatli 
of  his  nation.  It  was  made  of  the  finest  cotton,  with  the  em- 
broidered ends  gathered  in  a  knot  round  his  neck.  His  feet 
were  defended  by  sandals  having  soles  of  gold,  and  the  leath- 
ern thongs  which  bound  them  to  his  ankles  were  embossed 
with  the  same  metal.  Both  the  cloak  and  sandals  were 
sprinkled  with  pearls  and  precious  stones,  among  which  the 
emerald  and  the  chalchihuitl  —  a  green  stone  [jadeite]  of  high- 
er estimation  than  any  other  among  the  Aztecs  —  were  con- 
spicuous. On  his  head  he  wore  no  other  ornament  than  a 
panache  of  plumes  of  the  royal  green,  which  floated  down  his 
back,  the  badge  of  military,  rather  than  of  regal,  rank.1 

"When  the  train  had  come  within  a  convenient  distance, 
it  halted,  and  Montezuma,  descending  from  his  litter,  came 
forward,  leaning  on  the  arms  of  the  lords  of  Tezcuco  and 
Iztapalapan  —  his  nephew  and  brother.  As  the  monarch 
advanced  under  the  canopy,  the  obsequious  attendants  strewed 
the  ground  with  cotton  tapestry,  that  his  imperial  feet  might 
not  be  contaminated  by  the  rude  soil. 

"The  Spanish  army  halted  as  he  drew  near.  Cortes,  dis- 
mounting, threw  his  rein  to  a  page,  and,  supported  by  a  few 
of  his  principal  cavaliers,  advanced  to  meet  him.  The  inter- 
view must  have  been  one! of  uncommon  interest  to  both. 
Whatever  may  have  been  the  monarch's  feelings,  he  so  far 
suppressed  them  as  to  receive  this  guest  with  princely  court- 
esy, and  to  express  his  satisfaction  at  personally  seeing  him 
in  his  capital. 

"Cortes  responded  by  the  most  profound  expressions  of 
respect,  while  he  made  ample  acknowledgments  for  the  sub- 
stantial proofs  which  the  emperor  had  given  the  Spaniards 
of  his  munificence.  He  then  hung  round  Montezuma's  neck 
a  sparkling  chain  of  colored  crystal.  After  the  interchange  of 
these  civilities,  Montezuma  appointed  his  brother  to  conduct 
the  Spaniards  to  their  residence  in  the  capital,  and,  again 
entering  his  litter,  was  borne  off  amidst  prostrate  crowds, 
in  the  same  state  in  which  he  had  come.  The  Spaniards 
quickly  followed,  and  with  flying  colors  and  music,  soon  made 
their  entrance  into  the  southern  quarter  of  Tenochtitldn. 

"Here  again  they  found  fresh  cause  for  admiration  in  the 
grandeur  of  the  city  and  the  superior  style  of  its  architecture. 
The  great  avenue  through  which  they  were  now  marching  was 

i  "  Montezuma  was  at  this  time  about  40  years  of  age.  His  person  was 
tall  and  thin,  but  not  ill  made.  His  hair,  which  was  black  and  straight, 
was  not  very  long.  His  beard  was  thin,  his  complexion  paler  than  is  often 
found  in  his  dusky  race.  His  features,  though  serious  in  expression  did 
not  wear  the  look  of  melancholy  which  characterizes  his  portrait.  (Pres- 
oott,  Conquest  of  Mexico.)  (Compare  p.  clxxxn.) 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  25 

lined  with  the  houses  of  the  nobles.  They  were  built  of  a  red, 
porous  stone  drawn  from  quarries  in  the  neighborhood.  The 
flat  roofs  (azoteas)  were  protected  by  stone  parapets,  so  that 
every  house  was  a  fortress.  Occasionally  a  great  square  or 
market-place  intervened,  surrounded  by  its  porticoes  of  stone 
and  stucco ;  or  a  pyramidal  temple  reared  its  colossal  bulk. 

"What  impressed  the  Spaniards  most  were  the  throngs  of 
people  who  swarmed  through  the  streets  and  on  the  canals, 
filling  every  doorway  and  window,  and  clustering  on  the  roofs 
of  the  buildings.  Strange  thoughts  must  have  filled  the  Aztec 
minds  as  the  inhabitants  gazed  on  the  portentous  pageant; 
as  they  heard  for  the  first  time  the  well-cemented  pavement 
ring  under  the  iron  tramp  of  the  horses  —  the  strange  animals 
which  fear  had  clothed  in  such  supernatural  terrors ;  as  they 
gazed  on  the  children  of  the  East,  revealing  their  celestial 
origin  in  their  fair  complexions ;  saw  the  bright  falchions  and 
bonnets  of  steel,  a  metal  to  them  unknown,  glancing  like 
meteors  in  the  sun,  while  sounds  of  unearthly  music  —  at  least, 
such  as  their  rude  instruments  had  never  wakened  —  floated 
in  the  air !  But  every  other  emotion  was  lost  in  that  of  deadly 
hatred,  when  they  beheld  their  detested  enemy  the  Tlascalan 
stalking,  in  defiance,  as  it  were,  through  their  streets,  and 
staring  around  with  looks  of  ferocity  and  wonder,  like  some 
wild  animal  of  the  forest  who  had  strayed  by  chance  from  his 
native  fastnesses  into  the  haunts  of  civilization. 

"As  they  passed  down  the  spacious  streets,  the  troops 
repeatedly  traversed  bridges  suspended  above  canals,  along 
which  they  saw  the  Indian  barks  gliding  swiftly  with  their 
little  cargoes  of  fruits  and  vegetables  for  the  markets  of 
Tenochtitldn.  At  length  they  halted  before  a  broad  area  near 
the  centre  of  the  city,  where  rose  the  huge  pyramidal  pile 
dedicated  to  the  patron  war-god  of  the  Aztecs,  second  only, 
in  size  as  well  as  sanctity,  to  the  temple  of  Cholula,  and  cover- 
ing the  same  ground  now  in  part  occupied  by  the  great  Cathe- 
dral of  Mexico. 

"Facing  the  western  gate  of  the  enclosure  of  the  temple 
stood  a  low  range  of  stone  buildings,  spreading  over  a  wide  ex- 
tent of  ground,  the  palace  of  Axayacatl,  Montezuma's  father, 
built  by  that  monarch  about  fifty  years  before.  It  was  ap- 
propriated as  the  barracks  of  the  Spaniards.  The  emperor 
himself  was  in  the  court-yard  waiting  to  receive  him.  Ap- 
proaching Cortes,  he  took  from  a  vase  of  flowers,  borne  by 
one  of  his  slaves,  a  massy  collar,  in  which  the  shell  of  a  species 
of  craw-fish,  much  prized  by  the  Indians,  was  set  in  gold  and 
connected  by  heavy  links  of  the  same  metal.  From  this  chain 
depended  eight  ornaments,  also  of  gold,  made  in  resemblance 
of  the  same  shell-fish,  a  span  in  length  each,  and  of  delicate 
workmanship.  Montezuma,  as  he  hung  the  gorgeous  collar 
round  the  general's  neck,  said,  'This  palace  belongs  to  you, 


26  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

Malinche,  and  your  brethren.  Rest  after  your  fatigues,  for 
you  have  much  need  to  do  so,  and  in  a  little  while  I  will  visit 
you  again/  So  saying,  he  withdrew  with  his  attendants, 
evincing  in  this  act  a  delicate  consideration  not  to  have  been 
expected  in  a  barbarian. 

"On  a  subsequent  visit  to  Cortes,  Montezuma  made  many 
inquiries  concerning  the  country  of  the  Spaniards,  their 
sovereign,  the  nature  of  his  government,  and  especially  their 
own  motives  in  visiting  Andhuac.  Cortes  explained  these 
motives  by  the  desire  to  see  so  distinguished  a  monarch  and 
to  declare  to  him  the  true  Faith  professed  by  the  Christians." 

c.  The  Spaniards  in  Tenochtitla*n.  "The  Spaniards  had 
not  been  long  in  the  Aztec  capital  before  the  true  object  of 
their  visit  became  apparent  to  the  Mexicans.  Their  insatiable 
greed  of  gold  and  their  religious  intolerance  were  ever  in  evi- 
dence. Cortes  and  his  priests  lost  no  opportunity  to  preach 
salvation  and  the  cross  to  their  unwilling  host ;  nor  did  they 
fail  to  treat  the  natives  with  that  lofty  contempt  from  which 
ecclesiastical  missionaries  of  to-day  are  not  always  free.  If 
Montezuma  was  steeped  in  the  superstitions  of  his  country, 
the  iron- willed  conqueror  was  no  less  bigoted.  Neither  cared 
to  yield,  and  the  apparent  peace  was  illusory,  and  was  main- 
tained only  by  fear  and  force  of  arms.  The  unfailing  hospi- 
tality of  Montezuma,  and  his  princely  gifts,  failed  to  awaken 
a  feeling  of  gratitude  in  the  breast  of  the  Spaniard ;  they  but 
whetted  his  appetite.  The  final  seizure  of  the  emperor  as  a 
hostage  against  any  treacherous  act  on  the  part  of  the  natives, 
and  the  confiscation  of  the  imperial  treasure,  were  measures 
which  so  incensed  the  Aztecs  that  it  required  all  Montezuma 's 
authority  to  restrain  their  impatience." 

The  middle  of  May,  1520,  six  months  after  the  entrance  of 
the  Spaniards  into  Mexico,  was  the  beginning  of  a  long  series 
of  misfortunes  for  the  invading  army.  For  reasons  of  safety, 
Cortes  deemed  it  advisable  to  quit  Tenochtitldn,  descend  to 
the  coast,  and  settle  an  account  of  long  standing  with  Pdnflo 
de  Narvaez,  a  political  enemy  who  had  just  landed  on  Mexican 
soil  with  a  squadron  of  18  vessels,  a  large  number  of  men,  and 
military  stores;  the  object  of  the  expedition  being  to  capture 
Cortes,  supersede  him,  and  return  him  to  Spain  to  answer 
charges  which  would  be  submitted  to  him  by  the  Spanish  Court. 

With  his  usual  good  fortune  Cortes  defeated  Narvaez,  won 
over  his  men,  possessed  himself  of  the  equipment,  and  with 
the  reinforcements  started  back  to  the  capital.  On  leaving, 
he  had  placed  the  city  under  the  charge  of  Alvarado,  with 
a  garrison  of  140  men,  all  the  artillery,  the  greater  part  of 
the  little  band  of  horse,  and  the  arquebusiers.  But  when  the 
victorious  general  and  his  recruits  reached  the  highlands  and 
began  the  descent  into  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  their  reception 
by  the  natives  was  significant.  "  No  one  came  forth  to  greet 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  27 

them  ;  supplies  were  granted  with  an  ungracious  air,  and  the 
general  began  to  entertain  uncomfortable  apprehensions 
respecting  the  fate  of  the  garrison  in  Mexico/  But  his  doubts 
were  soon  dispelled  by  the  arrival  of  a  messenger  in  a  canoe, 
from  the  city,  whence  he  had  escaped.  He  brought  de- 
spatches from  Alvarado,  informing  his  commander  that  for 
the  last  fortnight  the  garrison  had  suffered  greatly  from  the 
Mexican  blockade,  but  he  hoped  tranquillity  would  be  restored 
on  the  approach  of  his  countrymen.  Montezuma  sent  a  mes- 
senger also,  to  the  same  effect.  No  effort  was  made  by  the 
Mexicans  to  bar  the  entry  of  the  Spaniards,  and  with  sad- 
dened feelings  they  reached  the  great  gate  of  the  palace  of 
Axayacatl  .  The  gates  were  thrown  open,  and  Cortes  and  his 
veterans  rushed  in  and  were  cordially  embraced  by  their 
companions  in  arms. 

^  "The  first  inquiries  of  the  general  were  respecting  the  ori- 
gin of  the  tumult.  The  accounts  were  various,  but  all  agreed 
in  tracing  the  immediate  cause  to  the  violence  of  Alvarado. 

"  It  was  common  for  the  Aztecs  to  celebrate  an  annual  festival  in  May 
in  honor  of  their  war-god.  It  was  held  in  the  court  of  the  teocalli  in  the 
immediate  neighborhood  of  the  Spanish  quarters.  They  assembled  on  the 
day  appointed,  to  the  number  of  six  hundred.  They  were  dressed  in  their 


c  were  oon  engrosse  n  e  ecng  oemens  o  e  ance,  accom- 
panied by  their  religious  chants  and  wild,  discordant  minstrelsy.  While 
thus  occupied,  Alvarado  and  his  men,  at  a  concerted  signal,  rushed  with 
drawn  swords  on  their  victims.  Unprotected  by  armor  or  weapons  of  any 
kind,  they  were  hewn  down  without  resistance  by  their  assailants,  who 
showed  no  pity  or  compunction.  Some  fled  to  the  gates,  but  were  caught 
on  the  long  pikes  of  the  soldiers.  Others  who  attempted  to  scale  the  Wall 
of  Serpents,  which  surrounded  the  area,  shared  the  like  fate,  or  were  cut 
to  pieces  by  the  ruthless  soldiery.  The  pavement  ran  with  streams  of 
blood.  Not  an  Aztec,  of  all  that  gay  company,  was  left  alive  1  Not  con- 
tent with  slaughtering  their  victims,  the  Spaniards  rifled  them  of  the 
precious  ornaments  on  their  persons  1  On  this  sad  day  fell  the  flower  of 


-  .  . 

All  they  had  hitherto  suffered,  the  desecration  of  their  temples,  the  im- 
prisonment of  their  sovereign,  the  insults  heaped  on  his  person,  all  were 
forgotten  in  this  one  act.  Every  feeling  of  long-smothered  hostility  and 
rancor  now  burst  forth  in  the  cry  for  vengeance.  The  city  rose  in  arms  to 
a  man;  and  on  the  following  dawn,  almost  before  the  Spaniards  could 
secure  themselves  in  their  defences,  they  were  assaulted  with  desperate 
fury.  Some  of  the  assailants  attempted  to  scale  the  walls;  others  suc- 
ceeded in  partially  undermining  and  setting  fire  to  the  works.  But  at  the 
prayers  of  the  garrison,  Montezuma  himself  interfered,  and,  mounting 
the  battlements,  addressed  the  populace,  whose  fury  he  endeavored  to 
mitigate  by  urging  considerations  for  his  own  safety.  They  respected 
their  monarch  so  far  as  to  desist  from  further  attempts  to  storm  the  for- 
tress, but  they  threw  up  works  around  the  palace  to  prevent  the  egress  of 
the  Spaniards.  They  suspended  the  enemy's  supplies,  then  they  quietly 
sat  down,  with  feelings  of  sullen  desperation,  waiting  for  the  hour  when 
famine  should  throw  their  victims  into  their  hands. 


28  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

"  Cortes  listened  calmly  to  the  explanation  made  by  Alvarado. 
But,  before  it  was  ended,  he  was  convinced  that  he  had  made 
a  wrong  selection  for  this  important  post.  Yet  the  mistake 
was  natural.  Alvarado  was  a  cavalier  of  high  family,  gallant, 
and  his  warm  personal  friend.  He  had  talents  for  action,  was 
possessed  of  firmness  and  intrepidity,  while  his  frank  and 
dazzling  manner  made  the  Tonatiuh,  as  he  was  called  by  the 
Mexicans,  a  special  favorite  with  them.  But  underneath  this 
showy  exterior  the  future  conqueror  of  Guatemala  concealed 
a  heart  rash,  rapacious,  and  cruel. 

"  When  Alvarado  had  concluded  his  answers  to  the  several 
interrogatories  of  Cortes,  the  brow  of  the  latter  darkened,  as 
he  said  to  his  lieutenant,  '  You  have  been  false  to  your  trust. 
Your  conduct  has  been  that  of  a  madman !  ;  And,  turning 
abruptly  on  his  heel,  he  left  him  in  undisguised  displeasure. 

"  On  the  day  that  Cortes  arrived,  Montezuma  left  his  quar- 
ters to  welcome  him.  But  the  Spanish  commander  received 
him  coldly.  Their  relations  were  now  those  of  prisoner  and 
jailer.  In  order  to  quiet  the  revolt  of  the  people,  Cortes  re- 
leased Montezuma's  brother,  Cuitlahua,  lord  of  Iztapalapan. 
He  was  a  bold,  ambitious  prince,  and  the  injuries  he  had  re- 
ceived from  the  Spaniards  rankled  deep  in  his  bosom.  He 
was  an  experienced  warrior,  and  instead  of  quieting  the  popu- 
lace he  immediately  exerted  himself  to  arrange  a  definite  plan 
of  operations  against  the  intruders. 

"The  Spaniards  were  not  kept  in  suspense.  The  Aztecs 
made  a  desperate  assault  on  the  Spanish  barracks,  bombard- 
ing them  with  a  tempest  of  missiles  —  stones,  darts,  and  ar- 
rows —  which  fell  thick  as  rain  on  the  besieged.  The  ferocity 
shown  by  the  Mexicans  seems  to  have  been  something  for  which 
Cortes  was  wholly  unprepared.  They  fought  furiously  through- 
out the  day,  and  the  ancient  walls  of  Tenochtitldn  shook  under 
the  thunders  of  the  artillery,  the  fierce  battle-cries  of  the  com- 
batants, the  hissing  sound  of  Indian  missiles,  and  the  shrieks 
of  the  wounded  and  dying.  Believing  that  the  temporary 
ebullition  of  the  populace  would  soon  waste  itself  by  its  own 
fury,  Cortes  determined  to  sally  out  on  the  following  day  and 
inflict  such  a  chastisement  on  his  foes  as  should  bring  them 
to  their  senses  and  show  who  was  master  of  the  capital. 

"With  early  dawn  the  Spaniards  were  up  and  under  arms. 
As  the  gray  light  of  morning  advanced,  it  showed  the  besieg- 
ing army,  filling  up  the  great  square  and  neighboring  avenues 
in  more  dense  array  than  on  the  preceding  evening.  Before 
the  sun  had  shot  his  beams  into  the  Castilian  quarters,  the 
enemy  were  in  motion.  The  Spanish  commander  determined 
to  anticipate  them  by  a  vigorous  sortie,  for  which  he  had 
already  made  the  necessary  dispositions. 

"  A  general  discharge  of  ordnance  and  musketry  sent  death 
far  and  wide  in  the  enemy's  ranks,  and,  before  they  had  time  to 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  29 

recover  from  their  confusion,  the  gates  were  thrown  open,  and 
Cortes,  sallying  out  at  the  head  of  his  cavalry,  supported  by 
a  large  body  of  infantry  and  several  thousand  Tlascalans,  rode 
at  full  gallop  against  them.  Taken  thus  by  surprise,  it  was 
scarcely  possible  to  offer  much  resistance.  Those  who  did  were 
trampled  down  under  the  horses'  feet,  cut  to  pieces  with  the 
broadswords,  or  pierced  with  the  lances  of  the  riders.  The 
infantry  followed  up  the  blow,  and  the  rout  for  the  moment 
was  general. 

"Rallying  on  the  other  side  of  a  barricade  which  had  been 
thrown  across  the  street,  the  Aztecs  poured  in  turn  a  volley 
of  their  light  weapons  on  the  Spaniards,  who,  saluted  with  a 
storm  of  missiles  at  the  same  time  from  the  terraces  of  the 
houses,  were  thrown  into  some  disorder  and  checked  in  their 
career.  The  canals  were  alive  with  boats  filled  with  warriors, 
who  with  their  formidable  darts  searched  every  crevice  or 
weak  place  in  the  armor  proof,  and  made  havoc  on  the  unpro- 
tected bodies  of  the  Tlascalans.  By  repeated  and  vigorous 
charges  the  Spaniards  succeeded  in  driving  the  Indians  be- 
fore them,  though  many,  with  a  desperation  which  showed 
they  loved  vengeance  better  than  life,  sought  to  embarrass  the 
movements  of  their  horses  by  clinging  to  their  legs,  or,  more 
successfully,  strove  to  pull  the  riders  from  their  saddles. 
And  woe  to  the  unfortunate  cavalier  who  was  thus  dis- 
mounted,—  to  be  despatched  by  the  brutal  maquahuitl,  or  to 
be  dragged  on  board  a  canoe  to  the  bloody  altar  of  sacrifice ! 

"  But  the  greatest  annoyance  which  the  Spaniards  endured 
was  from  the  hail  of  missiles  from  the  azoteas,  consisting 
often  of  large  stones,  hurled  with  a  force  that  would  tumble 
the  stoutest  rider  from  the  saddle.  Galled  in  the  extreme  by 
these  discharges,  against  which  even  their  shields  afforded 
no  adequate  protection,  Cortes  ordered  fire  to  be  set  to  the 
buildings.  But  the  buildings  stood  separated  from  one  an- 
other by  canals  and  drawbridges,  so  that  the  flames  did  not 
easily  communicate  to  the  neighboring  edifices.  Hence  the 
labor  of  the  Spaniards  was  incalculably  increased,  and  their 
progress  in  the  work  of  destruction  was  comparatively  slow. 

"They  did  not  relax  their  efforts,  however,  till  several  hun- 
dred houses  had  been  consumed,  and  the  miseries  of  a  con- 
flagration, in  which  the  wretched  inmates  perished  equally 
with  the  defenders,  were  added  to  the  other  horrors  of  the 
scene.  But  the  Aztecs  could  better  afford  the  loss  of  a  hundred 
lives  than  their  antagonists  that  of  one.  And,  while  the  Span- 
iards showed  an  array  broken  and  obviously  thinned  in  num- 
bers, the  Mexican  army,  swelled  by  the  tributary  levies  which 
flowed  in  upon  it  from  the  neighboring  streets,  exhibited, 
with  all  its  loss,  no  sign  of  diminution.  At  length,  sated  with 
Carnage,  and  exhausted  by  toil  and  hunger,  the  Spanish  com- 
mander drew  off  his  men  and  sounded  a  retreat. 


30  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

STORMING  OF  THE  GREAT  TEOCALLI.  "  Opposite  the  Span- 
ish quarters,  at  only  a  few  rods  distance,  stood  the  great 
teocalli  of  Huitzilopochtli.  This  pyramidal  mound,  with  the 
sanctuaries  that  crowned  it,  rising  altogether  to  the  height 
of  near  150  ft.,  afforded  an  elevated  position  that  completely 
commanded  the  palace  of  Axayacatl.  occupied  by  the  Christ- 
ians. A  body  of  five  or  six  hundred  Mexicans,  many  of  them 
nobles  and  warriors  of  the  highest  rank,  had  got  possession 
of  the  teocalli, whence  they  discharged  such  a  tempest  of  arrows 
on  the  garrison  that  no  one  could  leave  his  defences  for  a 
moment  without  imminent  danger ;  while  the  Mexicans,  under 
shelter  of  the  sanctuaries,  were  entirely  covered  from  the  fire 
of  the  besieged.  It  was  obviously  necessary  to  dislodge  the 
enemy,  if  the  Spaniards  would  remain  longer  in  their  quarters. 
Cortes,  who  saw  the  immediate  necessity  of  carrying  the  place, 
determined  to  lead  a  storming  party  himself.  He  was  then 
Buffering  much  from  a  wound  in  his  left  hand,  which  had  dis- 
abled it  for  the  present.  He  made  the  arm  serviceable,  how- 
ever, by  fastening  his  buckler  to  it,  and,  thus  crippled,  sallied 
out  at  the  head  of  300  chosen  cavaliers  and  several  thousand 
of  his  auxiliaries. 

"  In  the  court-yard  of  the  temple  he  found  a  numerous  body 
of  Indians  prepared  to  dispute  his  passage.  He  briskly  charged 
them;  but  the  flat  smooth  stones  of  the  pavement  were  so 
slippery  that  the  horses  lost  their  footing  and  many  of  them 
fell.  Hastily  dismounting,  they  sent  back  the  animals  to  their 
quarters,  and,  renewing  the  assault,  the  Spaniards  succeeded 
without  much  difficulty  in  dispersing  the  Indian  warriors  and 
opening  a  free  passage  for  themselves  to  the  teocalli. 

"Cortes,  haying  cleared  a  way  for  the  assault,  sprang  up 
the  lower  stairway,  followed  by  Alvarado,  Sandoval,  Ordaz, 
and  the  other  gallant  cavaliers  of  his  little  band,  leaving  a 
file  of  arquebusiers  and  a  strong  corps  of  Indian  allies  to  hold 
the  enemy  in  check  at  the  foot  of  the  monument.  On  the  first 
landing,  as  well  as  on  the  several  galleries  above,  and  on  the 
summit,  the  Aztec  warriors  were  drawn  up  to  dispute  his 
passage.  From  their  elevated  position  they  showered  down 
volleys  of  lighter  missiles,  together  with  heavy  stones,  beams, 
and  burning  rafters,  which,  after  thundering  along^  the  stair- 
way, overturned  the  ascending  Spaniards  and  carried  desola- 
tion through  their  ranks.  But  the  assailants  pressed  on, 
effectually  supported  by  a  brisk  fire  of  the  musketeers  from 
below,  which  so  much  galled  the  Mexicans  in  their  exposed 
situation  that  they  were  glad  to  take  shelter  on  the  broad 
summit  of  the  teocalli. 

"Cortes  and  his  comrades  were  close  upon  their  rear,  and 
the  two  parties  soon  found  themselves  face  to  face  on  this 
aerial  battlefield,  engaged  in  mortal  combat  in  presence  of 
the  whole  city,  as  well  as  of  the  troops  in  the  court-yard,  who 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  31 

paused,  as  if  by  mutual  consent,  gazing  in  silent  expectation 
on  the  issue  of  hostilities  above.  The  area,  though  somewhat 
smaller  than  the  base  of  the  teocalli,  was  large  enough  to  afford 
a  fair  field  of  fight  for  a  thousand  combatants.  It  was  paved 
with  broad,  flat  stones.  No  impediment  occurred  over  its  sur- 
face, except  the  huge  sacrificial  block,  and  the  temples  of 
stone  which  rose  to  the  height  of  forty  feet,  at  the  further 
extremity  of  the  area.  One  of  these  had  been  consecrated  to 
the  Cross.  The  other  was  still  occupied  by  the  Mexican  war- 
god.  The  Christian  and  the  Aztec  contended  for  their  religion 
under  the  very  shadow  of  their  respective  shrines:  while  the 
Indian  priests,  running  to  and  fro,  with  their  hair  wildly  stream- 
ing over  their  sable  mantles,  seemed  hovering  in  mid-air,  like 
so  many  demons  of  darkness  urging  on  the  work  of  slaughter. 
"The  parties  closed  with  the  desperate  fury  of  men  who 
had  no  hope  but  in  victory.  Quarter  was  neither  asked  nor 
given ;  and  to  fly  was  impossible.  The  edge  of  the  area  was  un- 

Erotected  by  parapet  or  battlement.  The  least  slip  would  be 
ital,  and  the  combatants,  as  they  struggled  in  mortal  agony, 
were  sometimes  seen  to  roll  over  the  sheer  sides  of  the  preci- 
pice together.  Cortes  himself  had  a  narrow  escape  from  the 
dreadful  fate.  Two  warriors  seized  on  him  and  were  dragging 
him  violently  toward  the  brink  of  the  pyramid.  Aware  of 
their  intention,  he  struggled  with  all  his  force,  and,  before  they 
could  accomplish  their  purpose,  succeeded  in  tearing  himself 
from  their  grasp  and  hurling  one  of  them  over  the  walls  with 
his  own  arm! 

"The  battle  lasted  with  unremitting  fury  for  three  hours. 
The  number  of  the  enemy  was  double  that  of  the  Christians, 
but  the  invulnerable  armor  of  the  Spaniard,  his  sword  of 
matchless  temper,  and  his  skill  in  the  use  of  it,  gave  him  ad- 
vantages which  far  outweighed  the  odds  of  physical  strength 
and  numbers.  Resistance  grew  fainter  and  fainter  on  the  side 
of  the  Aztecs.  One  after  another  they  had  fallen.  Two  or  three 
priests  only  survived,  to  be  led  away  in  triumph  by  the  vic- 
tors. Every  other  combatant  was  stretched  a  corpse  on  the 
bloody  arena,  or  had  been  hurled  from  the  giddy  heights.  The 
Spaniards  lost  45  of  their  best  men :  and  nearly  all  the  remain- 
der were  more  or  less  injured. 

"The  victorious  cavaliers  now  rushed  toward  the  sanctu- 
aries. Penetrating  into  their  recesses  they  had  the  mortifica- 
tion to  find  the  image  of  the  Virgin  and  the  Cross  removed. 
But  in  the  other  they  beheld  the  grim  figure  of  Huitzilopochtli,1 
with  his  censer  of  smoking  hearts,  and  the  walls  of  his  oratory 
reeking  with  gore,  —  not  improbably  of  their  own  country- 
men! With  shouts  of  triumph  the  Christians  tore  the  un- 
couth monster  from  his  niche,  and  tumbled  him,  in  the  pre- 


1  This  statue  is  now  in  the  Muaeo  National  at  Mexico  City. 


32  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

sence  of  the  horror-struck  Aztecs,  down  the  steps  of  the 
teocalli.  They  then  set  fire  to  the  wooden  tower  of  the  ac- 
cursed building.  The  flames  speedily  ran  up  the  slender 
towers,  sending  forth  an  ominous  light  over  city,  lake,  and 
valley,  to  the  remotest  hut  among  the  mountains.  It  was  the 
funeral  pyre  of  paganism,  and  proclaimed  the  fall  of  that 
sanguinary  religion  which  had  so  long  hung  like  a  dark  cloud 
over  the  fair  regions  of  Andhuac. 

"Having  accomplished  this  good  work,  the  Spaniards  de- 
scended the  winding  slopes  of  the  teocalli  with  more  free  and 
buoyant  step,  as  if  conscious  that  the  blessing  of  Heaven  now 
rested  on  their  arms.  They  passed  through  the  dusky  files  of 
Indian  warriors  in  the  court-yard,  too  much  dismayed  by  the 
appalling  scenes  they  had  witnessed  to  offer  resistance,  and 
reached  their  own  quarters  in  safety.  That  very  night  they 
followed  up  the  blow  by  a  sortie  on  the  sleeping  town,  and 
burned  300  houses,  the  horrors  of  conflagration  being  made 
still  more  impressive  by  occurring  at  the  hour  when  the  Aztecs, 
from  their  own  system  of  warfare,  were  least  prepared  for 
them. 

"  Hoping  to  find  the  temper  of  the  natives  somewhat  sub- 
dued by  these  reverses,  Cortes  made  them  a  vantage-ground  for 
proposing  peace  terms.  In  a  parley  with  the  principal  chiefs 
he  pointed  out  that  they  had  seen  their  gods  trampled  in  the 
dust,  their  altars  broken,  their  dwellings  burned,  their  war- 
riors falling  on  all  sides.  '  This,'  he  said, '  you  have  brought  on 
yourselves  by  your  rebellion.  If  you  do  not  lay  down  your 
arms  and  return  once  more  to  your  obedience,  I  will  make 
your  city  a  heap  of  ruins,  and  leave  not  a  soul  alive  to  mourn 
over  it.' 

"But  the  Spanish  commander  did  not  yet  comprehend  the 
character  of  the  Aztecs,  if  he  thought  to  intimidate  them 
by  menaces.  It  was  true,  they  answered,  he  had  destroyed 
their  temples,  broken  in  pieces  their  gods,  massacred  their 
countrymen.  Many  more  doubtless  were  yet  to  fall  under 
their  terrible  swords.  But  they  were  content  so  long  as  for 
every  thousand  Mexicans  they  could  shed  the  blood  of  a  single 
white  man !  *  Look  out,'  they  continued,  '  on  our  terraces  and 
streets;  see  them  still  thronged  with  warriors  as  far  as  your 
eyes  can  reach.  Our  numbers  are  scarcely  diminished  by  our 
losses.  Yours,  on  the  contrary,  are  lessening  every  hour.  You 
are  perishing  from  hunger  and  sickness.  Your  provisions  and 
water  are  failing.  You  must  soon  fall  into  our  hands.  The 
bridges  are  broken  down,  and  you  cannot  escape !  There  will 
be  too  few  of  you  left  to  glut  the  vengeance  of  our  gods ! '  As 
they  concluded,  they  sent  a  whole  volley  of  arrows  over  the 
battlements,  which  compelled  the  Spaniards  to  descend  and 
take  refuge  in  their  defences. 

"The  fierce  and  indomitable  spirit  of  the  Aztecs  filled  the 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  33 

besieged  with  dismay.  The  annunciation  respecting  the  bridges 
fell  like  a  knell  on  their  ears.  All  that  they  had  heard  was  too 
true;  and  they  gazed  on  one  another  with  looks  of  anxiety 
and  dismay. 

"  A  spirit  of  mutiny  broke  out,  especially"  among  the  recent 
levies  drawn  from  the  army  of  Narvaez,  and  the  men  de- 
manded, with  noisy  vehemence,  to  be  led  instantly  from  the 
city,  and  refused  to  serve  longer  in  defence  of  a  place  where 
they  were  cooped  up  like  sheep  in  the  shambles,  waiting  only 
to  be  dragged  to  slaughter.  In  all  this  they  were  rebuked  by 
the  more  orderly,  soldier-like  conduct  of  the  veterans  of 
Cortes.  These  latter  had  shared  with  their  general  the  day  of 
his  prosperity,  and  they  were  not  disposed  to  desert  him  in 
the  tempest. 

"Cortes  calmly  surveyed  his  condition,  and  weighed  the 
difficulties  which  surrounded  him,  before  coming  to  a  decision. 
Independently  of  the  hazard  of  a  retreat  in  the  face  of  a  watch- 
ful and  desperate  foe,  it  was  a  deep  mortification  to  surrender 
the  city  where  he  had  so  long  lorded  it  as  master,  to  abandon 
the  rich  treasures  which  he  had  secured  to  himself  and  his 
followers ;  to  forego  the  very  means  by  which  he  had  hoped  to 
propitiate  the  favor  of  his  sovereign  and  secure  an  amnesty 
for  his  irregular  proceedings. 

"  In  this  condition  he  had  yet  to  learn  the  tidings  of  a  fresh 
misfortune  in  the  death  of  Montezuma.  A  short  time  before, 
the  Indian  monarch  had  received  a  javelin  wound  while 
addressing  the  infuriated  people,  and  since  receiving  this 
wound  he  had  declined  rapidly.  Perceiving  his  end  approach, 
he  summoned  Cortes  and  recommended  his  three  daughters  to 
his  care.  He  earnestly  commended  these  children  to  his  pro- 
tection, as  'the  most  precious  jewels  that  he  could  leave  him/ 
He  besought  Cortes  to  care  for  them :  to  protect  them  from 
the  wrath  of  the  people  who  believed  Montezuma  a  traitor  to 
them.  On  the  30th  of  June,  1520,  he  expired  in  the  arms  of 
some  of  his  own  nobles,  who  still  remained  faithful  to  him.  At 
the  time  of  his  death  Montezuma  was  forty  years  old.  He  had 
reigned  18  years.'1 

-tf.  The  Retreat  from  Tenochtitla*n.  "As  there  was  no 
longer  any  question  as  to  the  expediency  of  evacuating  the 
capital,  the  Spanish  commander  called  a  council  of  officers  to 
deliberate  on  the  matter.  It  was  his  purpose  to  retreat  on 
Tlascala,  and  there  to  decide  on  his  future  operations.  The 
general's  first  care  was  to  provide  for  the  safe  transportation 
of  the  treasure.  He  delivered  the  share  belonging  to  the  Crown 
to  the  royal  officers,  assigning  them  one  of  the  strongest 
horses,  and  a  guard  of  soldiers  to  transport  it.  Much  of  the 
treasure  was  necessarily  abandoned,  from  the  want  of  adequate 
means  of  conveyance.  The  metal  lay  in  shining  heaps  along 
the  floor,  exciting  the  cupidity  of  the  soldiers.  'Take  what 


34  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

you  will  of  it,'  said  Cortts  to  his  men.  '  Better  you  should  have 
it  than  these  Mexican  hounds.  But  be  careful  not  to  overload 
yourselves.  He  travels  safest  in  the  dark  night  who  travels 
lightest.'  His  own  more  wary  followers  took  heed  to  his  coun- 
sel, but  the  common  soldiers  rushed  on  the  treacherous  spoil, 
greedily  loading  themselves  with  as  much  as  they  could  carry. 

"Cortes  next  arranged  the  order  of  march.  The  van,  com- 
posed of  200  Spanish  foot,  he  placed  under  the  command  of 
the  valiant  Gonzdlo  de  Sandoval,  supported  by  Diego  de  OrdaZj 
Francisco  de  Lujp,  and  about  twenty  other  cavaliers.  The 
rear-guard,  constituting  the  strength  of  the  infantry,  was  en- 
trusted to  Pedro  de  Alvarado,  and  Velasquez  de  Leon.  The 
general  himself  took  charge  of  the '  battle'  or  centre,  in  which 
went  the  baggage,  some  of  the  heavy  guns,  the  treasure,  and 
the  prisoners.  These  consisted  of  a  son  and  two  daughters 
of  Montezuma,  Cacama,  the  deposed  lord  of  Tezcuco,  and 
several  other  nobles,  whom  Cortes  retained  as  important 
pledges  in  his  future  negotiations  with  the  enemy.  The 
Tlascalans  were  distributed  equally  among  the  three  divisions ; 
and  Cortes  had  under  his  immediate  command  a  hundred 
picked  soldiers,  his  own  veterans  most  attached  to  his  serv- 
ice, who,  with  Cristobal  de  Olid,  Francisco  de  Morla,  Alonso 
de  Avila,  and  two  or  three  other  cavaliers,  formed  a  select 
corps,  to  act  wherever  occasion  might  require. 

"The  general  had  already  superintended  the  construction 
of  a  portable  bridge  to  be  laid  over  the  open  canals  in  the 
causeway.  This  was  given  in  charge  to  an  officer  named  Mar- 
garino,  with  forty  soldiers  under  his  orders,  all  pledged  to 
defend  the  passage  to  the  last  extremity./' 

e.  La  Noche  Triste,  or  Sad  Night.  "  At  midnight  the 
troops  were  under  arms,  in  readiness  for  the  march.  Mass  was 
performed  by  Father  Olmedo,  who  invoked  the  protection  of 
the  Almighty  through  the  awful  perils  of  the  night.  The  gates 
were  thrown  open,  and  on  the  first  of  July,  1520,  the  Spaniards 
for  the  last  time  sallied  forth  from  the  walls  of  the  ancient 
fortress,  the  scene  of  so  much  suffering  and  such  indomitable 
courage. ) 

"The  "night  was  cloudy,  and  a  drizzling  rain  added  to  the 
obscurity.  The  great  square  before  the  palace  was  deserted. 
Steadily,  as  noiselessly  as  possible,  the  Spaniards  held  their 
way  along  the  great  street  of  Tlacdpan,  which  so  lately  had 
resounded  with  the  tumult  of  battle.  All  was  now  hushed  in 
silence,  and  they  were  only  reminded  of  the  past  by  the  occa- 
sional presence  of  some  solitary  corpse,  or  a  dark  heap  of  the 
slain,  which  too  plainly  told  where  the  strife  had  been  hottest. 
As  they  passed  along  the  lanes  and  alleys,  which  opened  into 
the  great  street,  or  looked  down  the  canals,  whose  polished  sur- 
face gleamed  with  a  sort  of  ebon  lustre  through  the  obscurity 
of  night,  they  fancied  that  they  discerned  the  shadowy  forms 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  35 

of  their  foe  lurking  in  ambush  and  ready  to  spring  on  them. 
But  it  was  only  fancy :  the  city  slept  undisturbed  even  by  the 
prolonged  echoes  of  the  tramp  of  the  horses  and  the  hoarse 
rumbling  of  the  artillery  and  baggage-trains. 

('As  the  Spaniards  drew  near  the  spot  where  the  street 
opened  on  the  causeway,  and  were  preparing  to  lay  the  port- 
able bridge  across  the  uncovered  breach,  several  Indian 
sentinels  who  had  been  stationed  here,  took  the  alarm  and 
fled,  rousing  their  countrymen  by  their  cries.  The  priests, 
keeping  their  night-watch  on  the  summits  of  the  teocallis, 
instantly  caught  the  tidings  and  sounded  their  shells,  while 
the  huge  drum  in  the  desolate  temple  of  the  war-god  sent  forth 
those  solemn  tones,  heard  only  in  seasons  of  calamity,  which 
vibrated  through  every  corner  of  the  capital.  The  Spaniards 
saw  that  no  time  was  to  be  lost.  The  bridge  was  brought  for- 
ward and  fitted  with  all  possible  expedition.  Sandoval  was 
the  first  to  try  its  strength,  and,  riding  across,  was  followed 
by  his  little  body  of  chivalry,  his  infantry,  and  the  Tlascalan 
allies  who  formed  the  first  division  of  the  army.  Then  came 
Cortts  and  his  squadrons,  with  the  baggage,  ammunition- 
wagons,  and  a  part  of  the  artillery.  But  before  they  had  time 
to  defile  across  the  narrow  passage^  a  gathering  sound  was 
heard,  like  that  of  a  mighty  forest  agitated  by  the  winds.  It 
grew  louder  and  louder,  while  on  the  dark  waters  of  the  lake 
was  heard  a  plashing  noise,  as  of  many  oars.  Then  came  a 
few  stones  and  arrows  striking  at  random  among  the  hurrying 
troops.  They  fell  every  moment  faster  and  more  furious,  till 
they  thickened  into  a  terrible  tempest,  while  the  very  heavens 
were  rent  with  the  yells  and  war-cries  of  a  myriad  combatants, 
who  seemed  all  at  once  to  be  swarming  over  land  and  lake. 

"The  Spaniards  pushed  steadily  on  through  this  Arrowy 
sleet,  though  the  barbarians,  dashing  their  canoes  against  the 
sides  of  the  causeway,  clambered  up  and  broke  in  upon  their 
ranks.  But  the  Christians,  anxious  only  to  make  their  escape, 
declined  all  combat  except  for  self-preservation.  The  cavaliers, 
spurring  forward  their  steeds,  shook  off  their  assailants  and 
rode  over  their  prostrate  bodies,  while  the  men  on  foot, 
with  their  good  swords  or  the  butt  of  their  pieces,  drove  them 
headlong  again  down  the  sides  of  the  dike. 

"  But  the  advance  of  several  thousand  men,,  marching  on 
a  front  of  not  more  than  twenty  abreast,  necessarily  required 
much  time,  and  the  leading  files  had  already  reached  the  sec- 
ond breach  in  the  causeway  before  those  in  the  rear  had  entirely 
traversed  the  first.  Here  they  halted,  and  as  they  had  no  means 
of  effecting  a  passage,  smarting  all  the  while  under  uninter- 
mitting  volleys  from  the  enemy,  who  were  clustered  thick  on 
the  waters  around  this  second  opening,  sorely  distressed,  the 
vanguard  sent  repeated  messages  to  the  rear  to  demand  the 
portable  bridge.  At  length  the  last  of  the  army  had  crossed, 


36  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

and  Margarino  and  his  sturdy  followers  endeavored  to  raise 
the  ponderous  framework.  But  it  stuck  fast  in  the  sides  of  the 
dike.  In  vain  they  strained  every  nerve.  The  weight  of  so 
many  men  and  horses,  and  above  all,  the  heavy  artillery,  had 
wedged  the  timbers  so  firmly  in  the  stones  and  earth  that  it 
was  beyond  their  power  to  dislodge  them.  Still  they  labored 
amidst  a  torrent  of  missiles,  until,  many  of  them  slain,  and  all 
wounded,  they  were  obliged  to  abandon  the  attempt. 

"The  tidings  soon  spread  from  man  to  man,  and  no  sooner 
was  their  dreadful  import  comprehended  than  a  cry  of  despair 
arose,  which  for  a  moment  drowned  all  the  noise  of  conflict. 
All  means  of  retreat  were  cut  off.  Scarcely  hope  was  left.  The 
only  hope  was  in  such  desperate  exertions  as  each  could  make 
for  himself.  Intense  danger  produced  intense  selfishness. 
Each  thought  only  of  his  own  life.  Pressing  forward,  he  tram- 
pled down  the  weak  and  wounded,  heedless  whether  it  were 
friend  or  foe.  The  leading  files,  urged  on  by  the  rear,  were 
crowded  on  the  brink  of  the  gulf.  Sandoval,  Ordaz,  and  the 
other  cavaliers  dashed  into  the  water.  Some  succeeded  in 
swimming  their  horses  across.  Others  failed,  and  some,  who 
reached  the  opposite  bank,  being  overturned  in  the  ascent, 
rolled  headlong  with  their  steeds  into  the  lake.  The  infantry 
followed  pell-mell,  heaped  promiscuously  on  one  another, 
frequently  pierced  by  the  shafts  or  struck  down  by  the  war- 
clubs  of  the  Aztecs:  while  many  an  unfortunate  victim  was 
dragged  half-stunned  on  board  their  canoes,  to  be  reserved 
for  a  protracted  but  more  dreadful  death. 

"The  carnage  raged  fearfully  along  the  length  of  the  cause- 
way. Its  shadowy  bulk  presented  a  mass  of  sufficient  distinct- 
ness for  the  enemy's  missiles,  which  often  prostrated  their 
own  countrymen  in  the  blind  fury  of  the  tempest.  Those 
nearest  the  dike,  running  their  canoes  alongside,  with  a  force 
that  shattered  them  to  pieces,  leaped  on  the  land,  and  grap- 
pled with  the  Christians,  until  both  came  rolling  down  the 
causeway  together.  But  the  Aztec  fell  among  his  friends, 
while  his  antagonist  was  borne  away  in  triumph  to  the  sacri- 
fice. The  struggle  was  long  and  deadly.  The  Mexicans  were 
recognized  by  their  white  cotton  tunics,  which  showed  faint 
through  the  darkness.  Above  the  combatants  rose  a  wild  and 
discordant  clamor,  in  which  horrid  shouts  of  vengeance  were 
mingled  with  groans  of  agony,  with  invocations  of  the  saints 
and  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  with  screams  of  women ;  for  there 
were  several  women,  both  natives  and  Spaniards,  who  had 
accompanied  the  Christian  camp.  Among  these,  one  named 
Maria  de  Estrada  is  particularly  noticed  for  the  courage  she 
displayed,  battling  with  broadsword  and  target  like  the 
Btanchest  of  the  warriors. 

"The  opening  in  the  causeway,  meanwhile,  was  filled  up 
with  the  wreck  of  matter  which  had  been  forced  into  it,  am- 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  37 

munition-wagons,  heavy  guns,  bales  of  rich  stuff  scattered 
over  the  waters,  chests  of  solid  ingots,1  and  bodies  of  men  and 
horses,  till  over  this  dismal  ruin  a  passage  was  gradually 
formed,  by  which  those  in  the  rear  were  enabled  to  clamber 
to  the  other  side.  Cortes  found  a  place  that  was  f ordable,  and 
halting,  with  the  water  up  to  his  saddle-girths,  he  endeavored 
to  check  the  confusion,  and  lead  his  followers  by  a  safer  path 
to  the  opposite  bank.  But  his  voice  was  lost  in  the  wild  up- 
roar, and  finally,  hurrying  on  with  the  tide,  he  pressed  forward 
with  a  few  trusty  cavaliers,  but  not  before  he  had  seen  his 
favorite  page,  Juan  de  Salazar,  struck  down,  a  corpse,  by  his 
side.  Here  he  found  Sandoval  and  his  companions,  halting 
before  the  third  and  last  breach,  endeavoring  to  cheer  on 
their  followers  to  surmount  it.  But  their  resolution  faltered. 
It  was  wide  and  deep,  though  not  so  closely  beset  by  the 
enemy  as  the  preceding  ones.  The  cavaliers  again  set  the 
example  by  plunging  into  the  water.  Horse  and  foot  followed 
as  they  could,  some  swimming,  others  with  dying  grasp  cling- 
ing to  the  manes  and  tails  of  the  struggling  animals.  Those 
fared  best,  as  the  general  had  predicted,  who  travelled  lightest; 
and  many  were  the  unfortunate  wretches  who,  weighed  down 
by  the  fatal  gold  which  they  loved  so  well,  were  buried  with  it 
in  the  salt  floods  of  the  lake.  CortSs,  with  his  gallant  comrades, 
Olid,  Morla,  Sandoval,  and  some  few  others,  still  kept  in  the 
advance,  leading  his  broken  remnant  off  the  fatal  causeway. 
The  din  of  battle  lessened  in  the  distance;  when  the  rumor 
reached  them  that  the  rear-guard  would  be  wholly  over- 
whelmed without  speedy  relief.  It  seemed  almost  an  act  of 
desperation :  but  the  generous  hearts  of  the  Spanish  cavaliers 
did  not  stop  to  calculate  danger  when  the  cry  for  succor 
reached  them.  Turning  their  horses,  they  galloped  back  to 
the  theatre  of  action,  worked  their  way  through  the  press, 
ewarn  the  canal,  and  placed  themselves  in  the  thick  of  the 
mele*e  on  the  opposite  bank. 

"  The  first  gray  of  the  morning  was  now  coming  over  the 
waters.  It  showed  the  hideous  confusion  of  the  scene  which 
had  been  shrouded  in  the  obscurity  of  night.  The  dark  masses 
of  combatants,  stretching  along  the  dike,  were  seen  struggling 
for  mastery,  until  the  very  causeway  on  which  they  stood 
appeared  to  tremble,  as  if  shaken  by  an  earthquake;  while 
the  bosom  of  the  lake,  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach,  was  dark- 
ened by  canoes  crowded  with  warriors,  whose  spears  and 
bludgeons,  armed  with  blades  of  volcanic  glass,  gleamed  in 
the  morning  light. 

"The  cavaliers  found  Alvarado  unhorsed,  and  defending 
himself  with  a  poor  handful  of  followers  against  an  over- 
whelming tide  of  the  enemy.  His  good  steed,  which  had 

1  One  witness  estimates  that  over  2,000,000  pesos  were  lost  during  that 
night. 


38  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

borne  him  through  many  a  hard  fight,  had  fallen  under  him, 
He  was  himself  wounded  in  several  places,  and  was  striving 
in  vain  to  rally  his  scattered  column,  which  was  driven  to  the 
verge  of  the  canal  by  the  fury  of  the  enemy,  then  in  possession 
of  the  whole  rear  of  the  causeway.  The  artillery  in  the  earlier 
part  of  the  engagement  had  not  been  idle,  and  its  iron  shower, 
sweeping  along  the  dike,  had  mowed  down  the  assailants  by 
hundreds.  But  nothing  could  resist  their  impetuosity.  The 
front  ranks,  pushed  on  by  those  behind,  were  at  length  forced 
up  to  the  pieces,  and,  pouring  over  them  like  a  torrent,  over- 
threw men  and  guns  in  one  general  ruin.  The  resolute  charge 
of  the  Spanish  cavaliers,  who  had  now  arrived,  created  a 
temporary  check,  and  gave  time  for  their  countrymen  to 
make  a  feeble  rally.  But  they  were  speedily  borne  down  by 
the  returning  flood.  Cortes  and  his  companions  were  com- 
pelled to  plunge  again  into  the  lake,  though  all  did  not  escape, 
Alvarado  stood  on  the  brink  for  a  moment,  hesitating  what 
to  do.  Unhorsed  as  he  was,  to  throw  himself  into  the  water, 
in  the  face  of  the  hostile  canoes  that  swarmed  around  the 
opening,  afforded  but  a  desperate  chance  of  safety.  He  was 
a  man  of  powerful  frame,  and  despair  gave  him  unnatural 
energy.  Setting  his  long  lance  firmly  on  the  wreck  which 
strewed  the  bottom  of  the  lake,  he  sprung  forward  with  all  his 
might,  and  cleared  the  wide  gap  at  a  leap !  Aztecs  and  Tlas- 
calans  gazed  in  stupid  amazement,  exclaiming,  as  they  be- 
held the  incredible  feat,  '  This  is  truly  the  Tonatiuh,  the  child 
of  the  Sun  1 '  The  breadth  of  the  opening  is  not  given.  But 
it  was  so  great  that  the  valorous  captain,  Diaz,  who  well  re- 
membered the  place,  says  the  leap  was  impossible  to  any 
man.  To  this  day  the  spot  is  familiarly  known  to  every  in- 
habitant of  the  capital ;  and  the  name  of  the  Calle  del  Puente 
de  Alvarado  [p.  339]  —street  of  the  Bridge  of  Alvarado—  still 
commemorates  the  exploit. 

"  Cortes  and  his  followers  now  rode  forward  to  the  front,  where 
the  troops  were  marching  off  the  fatal  causeway.  The  atten- 
tion of  the  Aztecs  was  diverted  to  the  rich  spoil  that  strewed 
the  battle-ground,  and,  but  little  molested,  the  jaded  Span- 
iards were  allowed  to  defile  through  the  adjacent  suburb  of 
Popotla. 

"The  Great  Captain  there  dismounted  from  his  tired  steed, 
and  sitting  beneath  a  giant  tree  [comp.  p.  418]  gazed  mournfully 
on  the  broken  files  as  they  passed  before  him.  The  cavalry, 
most  of  them  dismounted,  were  mingled  with  the  infantry,  who 
dragged  their  feeble  limbs  along  with  difficulty ;  their  shattered 
mail  and  tattered  garments  dripping  with  the  salt  ooze,  show- 
ing through  their  rents  many  a  bruise  and  ghastly  wound, 
their  bright  arms  soiled,  their  proud  crests  and  banners  gone, 
the  baggage,  artillery,  and  all  that  constitutes  the  pride  and 
panoply  of  glorious  war,  forever  lost.  Cortes,  as  he  looked 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  39 

wistfully  on  their  thin  and  disordered  ranks,  sought  in  vain 
for  many  a  familiar  face,  and  missed  more  than  one  dear  com- 
panion who  had  stood  side  by  side  with  him  through  all  the 
perils  of  the  Conquest,  Though  accustomed  to  control  his  emo- 
tions, the  sight  was  too  much  for  him.  He  covered  his  face 
with  his  hands,  and  the  tears  which  trickled  down  revealed 
too  plainly  the  anguish  of  his  soul. 

"  He  found  some  consolation,  however,  in  the  sight  of  several 
of  the  cavaliers  on  whom  he  most  relied.  Alvarado,  Sandoval, 
Olid,  Ordaz,  Avila,  were  yet  safe.  He  had  the  inexpressible 
satisfaction,  also,  of  learning  the  safety  of  Marina,  the  Indian 
interpreter.  Aguilar,  the  other  interpreter,  had  also  escaped. 
And  it  was  with  no  less  satisfaction  that  Cortes  learned  the 
safety  of  the  ship-builder,  Martin  Lopez.  The  general's  solici- 
tude for  the  fate  of  this  man,  so  indispensable  to  the  success 
of  his  subsequent  operations,  showed  that,  amidst  all  his 
affliction,  his  indomitable  spirit  was  looking  forward  to  the 
hour  of  revenge. 

'"The  loss  sustained  by  the  Spaniards  on  this  fatal  night, 
according  to  Cortes' s  own  letter,  did  not  exceed  one  hundred 
and  fifty  Spaniards  and  two  thousand  Indians.  But  Thoan 
Cano,  one  of  the  cavaliers  present,  estimated  the  slain  at 
1,170  Spaniards  and  8,000  allies.  Forty-six  of  the  cavalry 
were  cut  off.  The  greater  part  of  the  treasure,  the  baggage^ 
the  general's  papers,  including  a  minute  diary  of  transactions 
since  leaving  Cuba,  were  swallowed  up  by  the  waters.  The 
ammunition,  the  beautiful  little  train  of  artillery  with  which 
Cortes  had  entered  the  city,  were  all  gone.  Not  a  musket  re- 
mained, the  men  having  thrown  them  away,  lest  they  retard 
their  escape  on  that  disastrous  night.  Such  were  the  results 
of  this  terrible  passage  of  the  causeway ;  more  disastrous  than 
those  occasioned  by  any  other  reverse  which  had  stained  the 
Spanish  arms  in  the  New  World ;  and  which  have  branded 
the  night  on  which  it  happened,  in  the  national  annals,  with 
the  name  of  la  noche  triste,  '  the  melancholy  night.'  " 

/.  Siege  and  Downfall  of  Tenochtitlan.  "In  the  spring 
of  1521  we  find  the  Great  Captain  once  more  in  the  Valley 
of  Mexico,  blockading  and  besieging  the  ancient  Aztec  city. 
Provided  with  fresh  arms  and  military  stores ;  with  fresh  re- 
cruits and  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  new  energy;  strongly 
supported  by  thousands  of  Indian  allies  thirsting  for  the  com- 
plete annihilation  of  the  Aztec  stronghold,  the  Spanish  com- 
mander set  about  the  downfall  of  the  doomed  city  with  a 
singleness  of  purpose  that  brooked  no  defeat.  Building  a  num- 
ber of  brigantines,  he  launched  them  on  the  lake  and  defeated, 
in  a  bloody  encounter,  the  Indian  flotilla  that  came  to  meet 
them.  Day  after  day  the  intrepid  Aztecs  sallied  out  to  meet 
the  Spaniards,  and  as  frequently  were  they  forced  back.  For 
weeks  and  months  the  invaders  lived  a  life  of  incessant  toil 


40  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

almost  too  severe  for  even  their  stubborn  constitutions.  Many 
of  their  desperate  assaults  were  repulsed  by  the  besieged,  whose 
proud  spirit  seemed  not  to  weaken,  albeit  famine  was  now 
gradually  working  its  way  into  the  heart  of  the  beleaguered 
city.  On  one  occasion  the  Spaniards  made  a  general  assault 
on  the  city,  but  they  were  defeated  with  such  loss  that  for  a 
time  their  position  was  critical. 

"A  day  was  fixed  for  the  final  assault,  which  was  to  be 
made  simultaneously  by  the  two  divisions  under  Alvarado 
and  the  commander-in-chief . '  Sandoval  was  instructed  to 
draw  off  the  greater  part  of  his  besieging  forces  from  the 
northern  causeway  and  to  unite  himself  with  Alvarado,  while 
seventy  picked  soldiers  were  to  be  detached  to  the  support 
of  Cortes. I  On.  the  appointed  morning  the  two  armies  advanced 
along  their  respective  causeways  against  the  city.  They  were 
supported,  in  addition  to  the  brigantines,  by  a  numerous  fleet 
of  Indian  boats,  and  by  a  countless  multitude  of  allies,  whose 
very  numbers  served  in  the  end  to  embarrass  their  operation^ 
Cortes  divided  his  forces  into  three  bodies./ One  of  them  he 
placed  under  Alder ete,  with  orders  to  occupy  the  principal 
street.  A  second  he  gave  in  charge  to  Andres  de  Tapia  and 
Jorge  de  Alvarado;  the  former  a  cavalier  of  courage  and  ca- 
pacity, the  latter  a  younger  brother  of  Don  Pedro,  and  pos- 
sessed of  the  intrepid  spirit  which  belonged  to  that  chivalrous 
family.  These  were  to  penetrate  by  one  of  the  parallel  streets, 
while  the  general  himself,  at  the  head  of  the  third  division, 
was  to  occupy  the  other.  A  small  body  of  cavalry,  with  two 
or  three  field-pieces,  was  stationed  as  a  reserve  in  front  of  the 
great  street  of  Tacuba,  which  was  designated  as  the  rallying- 
point  for  the  different  divisions. 

"  Cortes  gave  the  most  positive  instructions  to  the  captaina 
not  to  advance  a  step  without  securing  the  means  of  retreat 
by  carefully  filling  up  the  ditches  and  the  openings  of  the  cause- 
ways. The  neglect  of  this  precaution  by  Alvarado,  in  an  assault 
which  he  had  made  on  the  city  but  a  few  days  before,  had 
been  attended  with  such  serious  consequences  to  the  army 
that  Cortes  rode  over  to  his  officer's  quarters  for  the  purpose 
of  publicly  reprimanding  him  for  his  disobedience  of  orders. 
On  his  arrival  at  the  camp,  however,  he  found  that  his  offend- 
ing captain  had  conducted  the  affair  with  such  gallantry  that 
the  intended  reprimand  subsided  into  a  mild  rebuke. 

''The  arrangements  being  completed,  the  three  divisions 
marched  at  once  up  the  several  streets.^ Cortes,  dismounting, 
.took  the  van  of  his  own  squadron,  at  the  head  of  his  infantry. 
JThe  Mexicans  fell  back  as  he  advanced,  making  less  resistance 
than  usual.  The  Spaniards  pushed  on,  carrying  one  barri- 
cade after  another,  and  carefully  filling  up  the  gaps  with  rub- 
bish, so  as  to  secure  themselves  a  footing.  The  canoes  supported 
the  attack,  by  moving  along  the  canals,  and  grappling  with 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  41 

those  of  the  enemy;  while  numbers  of  the  nimble-footed 
Tlascalans,  scaling  the  terraces,  passed  from  one  house  to 
another,  hurling  the  defenders  into  the  streets  below.  The 
enemy,  taken  apparently  by  surprise,  seemed  incapable  of 
withstanding  the  fury  of  the  assault.  The  facility  of  his 
success  led  Cortes  to  suspect  that  he  was  advancing  too  fast. 
Determined  to  trust  no  eyes  but  his  own,  he  proceeded  to 
reconnoitre  the  route  followed  by  his  victorious  troops.;/ 

"His  conjecture  proved  too  true.  Alderete  had  followed  the 
retreating  Aztecs  with  an  eagerness  which  increased  with 
every  step  of  his  advance.  He  had  carried  the  barricades 
which  had  defended  the  breach,  and,  as  he  swept  on,  gave 
orders  that  the  opening  should  be  stopped.  But  the  blood  of 
the  high-spirited  cavaliers  was  warmed  by  the  chase,  and  no 
one  cared  to  be  detained  by  the  ignoble  occupation  of  filling 
up  the  ditches.  In  this  way  they  suffered  themselves  to  be 
decoyed  into  the  heart  of  the  city.  Suddenly  the  horn  of 
Guatemozin  —  the  sacred  symbol,  heard  only  in  seasons  of 
extraordinary  peril  —  sent  forth  a  long  and  piercing  note 
from  the  summit  of  a  neighboring  teocalli.  In  an  instant,  the 
flying  Aztecs,  as  if  maddened  by  the  blast,  wheeled  about  and 
turned  on  their  pursuers.  At  the  same  time,  countless  swarms 
of  warriors  from  the  adjoining  streets  and  lanes  poured  in 
upon  the  flanks  of  the  assailants,  filling  the  air  with  the  fierce, 
unearthly  cries  which  had  reached  the  ears  of  Cortes,  and 
drowning,  for  a  moment,  the  wild  dissonance  which  reigned  in 
the  other  quarters  of  the  capital. 

"The  army,  taken  by  surprise,  and  shaken  by  the  fury  of 
the  assault,  was  thrown  into  the  utmost  disorder.  Friends 
and  foes,  white  men  and  Indians,  were  mingled  together  in 
one  promiscuous  mass.  Spears,  swords,  and  war-clubs  were 
brandished  together  in  the  air.  Blows  fell  at  random.  In 
their  eagerness  to  escape  they  trod  down  one  another.  Blinded 
by  the  missiles  which  now  rained  on  them  from  the  azoteas, 
they  staggered  on,  scarcely  knowing  in  what  direction,  or 
fell,  struck  down  by  hands  which  they  could  not  see.  On  they 
came,  like  a  rushing  torrent  sweeping  along  some  steep  decliv- 
ity, and  rolling  in  one  confused  tide  toward  the  open  breach, 
on  the  farther  side  of  which  stood  Cortes  and  his  companions, 
horror-struck  at  the  sight  of  the  approaching  ruin.  The  fore- 
most files  soon  plunged  into  the  gulf,  treading  one  another 
under  the  flood,  some  striving  ineffectually  to  swim,  others, 
with  more  success,  to  clamber  over  the  heaps  of  their  suffo- 
cated comrades.  Many,  as  they  attempted  to  scale  the  oppo- 
site sides  of  the  slippery  dike,  fell  into  the  water,  or  were 
hurried  off  by  the  warriors  in  canoes,  who  added  to  the  horror 
of  the  rout  by  the  fresh  storm  of  darts  and  javelins  which  they 
poured  on  the  fugitives. 

"  Cortes,  with  his  brave  followers,  kept  his  station  undaunted 


42  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

on  the  other  side  of  the  breach.  With  outstretched  hands  he 
endeavored  to  rescue  as  many  as  he  could  from  the  watery 
grave,  and  from  the  more  appalling  fate  of  captivity.  He  as 
vainly  tried  to  restore  something  like  presence  of  mind  and 
order  among  the  distracted  fugitives.  His  person  was  well 
known  to  the  Aztecs,  and  his  position  now  made  him  a  con- 
spicuous mark  for  their  weapons.  Stones,  darts,  and  arrows 
fell  around  him  as  thick  as  hail,  but  glanced  harmless  from 
his  steel  helmet  and  armor.  At  length  a  cry  of  '  Malinche, 
Malinche,'  arose  among  the  enemy;  and  six  of  their  number, 
strong  and  athletic  warriors,  rushing  on  him  at  once,  made  a 
violent  effort  to  drag  him  on  board  their  boat.  In  the  struggle 
he  received  a  severe  wound  in  the  leg,  which,  for  the  time,  dis- 
abled it.  There  seemed  to  be  no  hope  for  him :  when  a  faithful 
follower,  Cristobal  de  Olea,  perceiving  his  general's  extremity, 
threw  himself  on  the  Aztecs,  and  with  a  blow  cut  off  the  arm 
of  one  savage,  and  then  plunged  his  sword  in  the  body  of  an- 
other. He  was  quickly  supported  by  a  comrade  named  Lerma, 
and  by  a  Tlascalan  chief,  who,  fighting  over  the  body  of  the 
prostrate  Cortes,  despatched  three  more  of  the  assailants, 
though  the  heroic  Olea  paid  dearly  for  his  self-devotion,  as  he 
fell  mortally  wounded  by  the  side  of  his  general. 

"With  the  aid  of  his  cavaliers  Cortes  at  length  succeeded 
in  regaining  the  firm  ground  and  reaching  the  open  place 
before  the  great  street  of  Tacuba.  Here,  under  a  sharp  fire 
of  the  artillery,  he  rallied  his  broken  squadrons  and  beat  off 
the  enemy. 

"That  night  the  jaded  Spaniards  from  their  camp  saw  a 
long  file  of  priests  and  warriors  climbing  to  the  flat  summit 
of  the  teocalli.  Among  them  were  several  men  stripped  to  the 
waist,  some  of  whom,  by  the  whiteness  of  their  skins,  they 
recognized  as  their  own  countrymen.  Their  heads  were  gaud- 
ily decorated  with  coronals  of  plumes,  and  they  carried  fans 
in  their  hands.  They  were  urged  along  by  blows,  and  com- 
pelled to  take  part  in  the  dances  in  honor  of  the  Aztec  war- 
fod.  The  unfortunate  captives,  soon  stripped  of  their  sad 
nery,  were  stretched,  one  after  another,  on  the  great  stone 
of  sacrifice. 

"  We  may  imagine  with  what  sensations  the  stupefied  Span- 
iards must  have  gazed  on  this  horrid  spectacle,  so  near  that 
they  could  almost  recognize  the  persons  of  their  unfortunate 
friends,  see  the  struggles  and  writhings  of  their  bodies,  hear 
their  screams  of  agony!  Their  limbs  trembled  beneath  them 
as  they  thought  what  might  one  day  be  their  own  fate :  and 
the  bravest  among  them,  who  had  hitherto  gone  to  battle 
as  careless  and  light-hearted  as  to  the  banquet-room,  were 
unable,  from  this  time  forward,  to  encounter  their  ferocious 
enemy  without  a  sickening  feeling,  much  akin  to  fear,  coming 
over  them. 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  43 

"  But  amidst  all  the  distress  and  multiplied  embarrassments 
of  their  situation,  the  Spaniards  still  remained  true  to  their 
purpose.  They  relaxed  in  no  degree  the  severity  of  the  block- 
ade. Their  camps  still  occupied  the  only  avenues  to  the  city, 
and  their  batteries,  sweeping  down  the  long  defiles  at  every 
fresh  assault  of  the  Aztecs,  mowed  down  hundreds  of  the 
assailants. 

"  Soon  there  was  no  occasion  to  resort  to  artificial  means  to 
precipitate  the  ruin  of  the  Aztecs.  It  was  accelerated  every 
hour  by  causes  more  potent  than  those  arising  from  human 
agency.  Pent  up  in  their  suffocating  quarters,  nobles,  com- 
moners, and  slaves,  men,  women,  and  children,  faced  inevitable 
starvation.  They  wandered  about  in  search  of  anything  that 
might  mitigate  the  fierce  gnawings  of  hunger.  Some  hunted 
for  insects  and  worms  on  the  borders  of  the  lake,  or  gathered 
the  salt  weeds  and  moss  from  its  bottom,  while  at  times  they 
might  be  seen  casting  a  wistful  look  at  the  green  hills  beyond, 
which  many  of  them  had  left  to  share  the  fate  of  their  breth- 
ren in  the  capital.  Hundreds  of  famished  wretches  died  every 
day  from  extremity  of  suffering. 

"  Cortes  offered  the  dying  Aztecs  a  chance  to  capitulate,  but 
they  refused.  As  long  as  they  were  able  to  stand  they  made 
murderous  assaults  on  the  Spanish  camps,  to  be  ruthlessly 
beaten  back  or  slaughtered  by  the  invaders. 

"It  was  the  memorable  13th  of  August,  1521,  the  day  of 
St.  Hippolytus,  —  from  this  circumstance  selected  as  the  patron 
saint  of  modern  Mexico,  —  that  Cortes  led  his  warlike  array 
for  the  last  time  across  the  black  and  blasted  environs  which 
lay  around  the  Indian  capital.  On  entering  the  Aztec  pre- 
cincts, he  paused,  willing  to  afford  its  wretched  inmates  one 
more  chance  to  escape  before  striking  the  fatal  blow.  He 
obtained  an  interview  with  some  of  the  principal  chiefs,  and 
expostulated  with  them  on  the  conduct  of  their  prince.  'He 
surely  will  not/  said  the  general,  'see  you  all  perish,  when 
he  can  so  easily  save  you.'  He  then  urged  them  to  prevail 
on  Guatemozin  to  hold  a  conference  with  him,  repeating  the 
assurance  of  his  personal  safety. 

"The  messengers  went  on  their  mission,  and  soon  returned 
with  the  cihuacoatl  at  their  head,  a  magistrate  of  high  author- 
ity among  the  Mexicans.  He  said,  with  a  melancholy  air, 
that  '  Guatemozin  was  ready  to  die  where  he  was,  but  would 
hold  no  interview  with  the  Spanish  commander ;:  adding, 
in  a  tone  of  resignation,  '  it  is  for  you  to  work  your  pleasure.' 
'Go,  then,'  replied  the  stern  conqueror,  'and  prepare  your 
countrymen  for  death.  Their  hour  is  come.1 

"He  still  postponed  the  assault  fop  several  hours.  But  the 
impatience  of  his  troops  at  this  delay  was  heightened  by 
the  rumor  that  Guatemozin  and  his  nobles  were  preparing  to 
escape  with  their  effects  in  piraguas  and  canoes  which  were 


44  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

moored  on  the  margin  of  the  lake.  Convinced  of  the  impolicy 
of  further  procrastination,  Cortes  made  his  final  disposition  for 
the  attack,  and  took  his  own  station  on  an  azotea  which  com- 
manded the  theatre  of  operations. 

"  When  the  assailants  came  into  the  presence  of  the  enemy, 
they  found  them  huddled  together  in  the  utmost  confusion, 
all  ages  and  sexes,  in  masses  so  dense  that  they  nearly  forced 
one  another  over  the  brink  of  the  causeways  into  the  water 
below.  Some  had  climbed  on  the  terraces,  others  feebly 
supported  themselves  against  the  walls  of  the  buildings. 
Their  squalid  and  tattered  garments  gave  a  wildness  to  their 
appearance  which  still  further  heightened  the  ferocity  of 
their  expression,  as  they  glared  on  their  enemy  with  eyes  in 
which  hate  was  mingled  with  despair.  When  the  Spaniards 
had  approached  within  bowshot,  the  Aztecs  let  off  a  flight 
of  impotent  missiles,  showing  to  the  last  the  resolute  spirit  of 
their  better  days.  The  fatal  signal  was  then  given  by  the 
discharge  of  an  arquebuse,  —  speedily  followed  by  peals  of 
heavy  ordnance,  the  rattle  of  firearms,  and  the  hellish  shouts 
of  the  confederates  as  they  sprang  upon  their  victims.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  stain  the  page  with  a  repetition  of  the  horrors 
of  the  preceding  day.  Some  of  the  wretched  Aztecs  threw 
themselves  into  the  water  and  were  picked  up  by  canoes. 
Others  sank  and  were  suffocated  in  the  canals.  The  number 
of  these  became  so  great  that  a  bridge  was  made  of  their  dead 
bodies,  over  which  the  assailants  could  climb  to  the  opposite 
banks.  Others  again,  especially  the  women,  begged  for  mercy, 
which,  as  the  chroniclers  assure  us,  was  everywhere  granted 
by  the  Spaniards,  and,  contrary  to  the  instructions  of  Cortes, 
everywhere  refused  by  the  confederates. 

"  While  this  work  of  butchery  was  going  on,  numbers  were 
observed  pushing  off  in  the  barks  that  lined  the  shore,  ai.1 
making  the  best  of  their  way  across  the  lake.  They  were  con- 
stantly intercepted  by  the  brigantines,  which  broke  through 
the  flimsy  array  of  boats,  sending  off  their  volleys  right  and 
left,  as  the  crews  of  the  latter  hotly  assailed  them.  The  battle 
raged  as  fiercely  on  the  lake  as  on  land. 

"Sandoval  had  particularly  charged  his  captains  to  keep 
an  eye  on  the  movements  of  any  vessel  in  which  it  was  at  all 
probable  that  Guatemozin  might  be  concealed.  At  this  crisis 
three  or  four  of  the  largest  piraguas  were  seen  skimming  over 
the  water  and  making  their  way  rapidly  to  the  shore.  A  cap- 
tain named  Garcia  Holguin  came  alongside  one  of  the  piraguas, 
and  ordered  his  men  to  level  their  cross-bows  at  the  boat.  But 
before  they  could  discharge  them  a  cry  arose  from  those  in 
it  that  their  lord  was  on  board.  At  the  same  moment  a  young 
warrior,  armed  with  buckler  and  maquahuitl,  rose  up,  as  if 
to  beat  off  the  assailants.  But  as  the  Spanish  captain  ordered 
his  men  not  to  shoot,  he  dropped  his  weapons,  and  exclaimed, 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  45 

'I  am  Guatemozin.  Lead  me  to  Malinche:  I  am  his  prisoner: 
but  let  no  harm  come  to  my  wife  and  my  followers.' 

"  The  news  of  Guatemozin's  capture  spread  rapidly  through 
the  fleet,  and  on  shore.  When  the  warriors  heard  it  they  ceased 
fighting.  It  seemed  as  if  the  fight  had  been  maintained  thus 
long  to  divert  the  enemy's  attention  and  cover  their  master's 
retreat. 

"  On  the  day  following  the  surrender,  Guatemozin  requested 
the  Spanish  commander  to  allow  the  Mexicans  to  leave  the 
city  and  to  pass  unmolested  into  the  open  country.  To  this 
Cortes  readily  assented.  The  whole  number  who  departed  from 
the  stricken  place  is  estimated  at  from  thirty  to  seventy  thou- 
sand, besides  women  and  children  who  had  survived  the  sword, 
pestilence,  and  famine.  Of  the  whole  number  who  perished 
in  the  course  of  the  siege  it  is  impossible  to  form  any  accurate 
computation.  The  accounts  range  widely,  from  120,000,  the 
lowest  estimate,  to  240,000.  The  number  of  Spaniards  who 
fell  was  comparatively  small.  The  historian  of  Tezcuco  asserts 
that  30,000  of  his  own  countrymen  perished. 

"The  booty  found  by  the  Spaniards  fell  far  below  their 
expectations.  It  did  not  exceed,  according  to  the  general's 
statement,  a  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  castellanos  of  gold, 
including  the  sovereign's  share,  which,  indeed,  taking  into 
account  many  articles  of  curious  and  costly  workmanship, 
voluntarily  relinquished  by  the  army,  greatly  exceeded  his 
legitimate  fifth.  It  is  believed  that  the  Aztecs  sunk  vast 
treasures  in  the  waters  of  the  lake. 

"Thus,  after  a  siege  of  nearly  three  months'  duration, 
unmatched  in  history  for  the  constancy  and  courage  of  the 
besieged,  seldom  surpassed  for  the  severity  of  its  sufferings, 
fell  the  renowned  capital  of  the  Aztecs."  (Prescott's  Conquest.) 

g.  The  Vice-Regal  Period.  Mexico  was  under  the  iron  rule 
of  Spain  from  1521  to  1821,  and  during  those  three  centuries 
it  was  ruled  by  five  (Hernan  Cortes  first)  Governors  (1521-28), 
two  Audiencias  (1528-35),  and  sixty- two  Viceroys  (1535-1821), 
the  last  of  whom  was  Francisco  Novella.  Personal  ambition 
and  religious  zeal  stimulated  Cortes  to  the  Conquest,  and 
covetousness  and  the  love  of  power  were  the  salient  character- 
istics of  many  of  the  peruked  and  bespangled  rulers  who  fol- 
lowed him.  These  viceroys  (virreyes)  were  for  the  most  part 
Spanish  nobles,  prelates,  or  court  politicians,  who  sought  the 
position  for  selfish  purposes  and  with  the  idea  of  repairing 
their  dilapidated  fortunes  in  the  New  World.  They  ruled  over 
one  of  the  most  extensive  empires  of  the  world  —  a  colony 
which  extended  over  20  degrees  of  latitude,  which  embraced 
every  known  climate,  and  which  contained  millions  of  human 
beings.  They  were  responsible  only  to  the  King  of  Spain  and 
the  powerful  Consejo  de  las  Indias  (thousands  of  miles  away) , 
and  during  their  incumbency  of  office,  the  conquered  territory 


46  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

was  exploited  for  the  Viceroys,  the  Church,  and  the  Spanish 
Crown.  The  vice-regal  salary  was  forty  thousand  pesos  a  year 
(raised  in  1689  to  $70,000),  and  despite  enormous  expendi- 
tures, some  of  these  petty  kings  were  enabled  to  return  to 
Spain  after  a  lapse  of  a  few  years  with  vast  fortunes  wrung 
from  the  coerced  and  enslaved  natives.  Foreigners  were  ex- 
cluded from  the  country,  education  was  monopolized  by  the 
clergy,  and  the  best  land,  the  most  profitable  commerce,  and 
the  most  influential  government  offices  were  held  by  the  native 
Spaniards.  But  among  the  men  of  this  long  vice-regal  succes- 
sion were  some  whose  ambition  was  to  uplift  the  oppressed 
Indians  and  to  govern  their  country  for  them,  wisely  and 
well.  Their  names  are  conspicuous  in  Mexican  history  and 
their  memory  is  revered  by  the  people. 

Antonio  de  Mendoza  (Conde  de  Tendilla  y  Comendador  de 
Socuellanos),  the  1st  Viceroy  (1535-50),  was  distinguished  for 
his  humane  efforts  to  mitigate  the  hardships  of  the  enslaved 
Indians.  He  sent  expeditions  northward  on  voyages  of  dis- 
covery; founded  the  cities  of  Valladolid  (now  Morelia)  and 
Guadalajara;  issued  the  first  money  minted  in  Mexico;  aided 
Fray  Pedro  de  Gante  to  establish  schools,  —  particularly  the 
celebrated  school  of  Santiago  Tlaltelolco, — and  caused  the 
first  printing-press  to  be  brought  from  Spain.  The  noble 
missionary  Fray  Bartolome  de  las  Casas  reached  Mexico  during 
his  reign  and  received  his  ardent  support.  The  mines  of 
Guanajuato  and  Zacatecas  were  exploited.  The  admirable 
precedent  of  this  benevolent  man  strongly  influenced 

Luis  de  Velasco,  2d  V.  (1550-64).  The  example  of  Las 
Casas  (" Defender  of  the  Indians")  for  good  was  so  great  that 
Velasco  emancipated  150,000  Indians  enslaved  by  Spanish 
landowners.  He  founded  (1553)  the  first  University  in  New 
Spain,  and  the  Hospital  Real;  distributed  Crown  Lands 
among  the  Indians  ;  and  by  means  of  expeditions  northward, 
he  essayed  to  pacify  and  civilize  the  nomad  tribes  of  those 
regions.  One  of  his  captains  discovered  the  still  enormously 
productive  silver-mines  of  Fresnillo  and  Sombrerete.  Silao, 
Durango,  and  San  Miguel  de  Allende  were  founded  during  his 
reign,  and  the  great  Dike  of  San  Lazaro  was  built.  He  died 
in  Mex.  City  July  31,  1564,  and  he  is  revered  as  the  great 
"emancipator." 

Gaston  de  Peralta,  3d  V.  (1566-68),  was  succeeded  by 

Martin  Enriquez  de  Almanza  (Knight  of  Santiago),  4th  V. 
(1568-80).  He  was  known  as  the  "  Inquisitor,"  because  the 
Inquisition  was  established  in  Mexico  during  his  reign.  During 
his  incumbency  of  office  the  Jesuits  reached  Mexico  (1572); 
the  corner-stone  of  the  Mex.  City  Cathedral  was  laid  (1573), 
and  the  city  of  Leon  was  founded  (1576).  During  the  time  of 

Lorenzo  Juarez  de  Mendozat  5th  V.  (1580-84),  the  fabulously 
rich  mines  of  San  Luis  Potosi  were  discovered. 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  47 

Pedro  Moya  de  Contreras  (Archbishop  of  Mexico),  the  6th 
V.  (1584),  was  succeeded  (in  1585)  by 

Alvaro  Manriquez  de  Zuniga  (Marques  de  Villa  Manrique), 
7th  V.  (1585-90) ,  who  extended  the  commerce  between  Mexico 
and  the  Far  East. 

Luis  de  Velasco  (Marques  de  Salinas),  a.  son  of  the  " Emanci- 
pator, "was  the  8th  V.  (1590-95).  He  framed  just  laws  for  the 
protection  of  the  Indians,  and  was  a  wise  and  benevolent 
ruler. 

Gaspar  de  Zuniga  y  Acevedo  (Count  of  Monterey),  the  9th 
V.  (1595-1603),  extended  the  Spanish  dominions  into  Cali- 
fornia, founded  there  the  town  of  Monterey,  another  of  the 
same  name  in  the  Mexican  state  of  Nuevo  Leon,  and  Santa  Fe* 
in  New  Mexico.  He  also  conveyed  to  Spain  the  astounding 
information  that  since  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards  to  Mexico, 
the  native  population  had  fallen  off  three  fourths ! 

Juan  Manuel  Hurtado  de  Mendoza  y  Luna  (Marques  de 
Montesclaros),  10th  V.  (1603-07),  was  succeeded  by 

Luis  de  Velasco,  who  returned  from  Peru  and  became  Viceroy 
(llth),  for  the  second  time  (1607-11).  The  great  Cut  of 
Huehuetoca  (p.  135),  aimed  to  drain  the  Valley  of  Mexico, 
was  begun  by  his  order. 

Archbishop  Garcia  Guerra,  12th  V.  (1611-12). 

Diego  Fernandez  de  Cdrdova  (Marques  de  Guadalcazar) , 
13th  V.  (1612-21). 

Diego  Carrillo  de  Mendoza  y  Pimentel  (Conde  de  Priego  y 
Marques  de  Gelves),  14th  V.  (1621-24). 

Rodrigo  Pacheco  Osorio  (Marque's  de  Cerralvo),  15th  V' 
(1624-35). 

Lope  Diaz  de  Armendariz,  16th  V.  (1635-40). 

Diego  Lopez  Pacheco  Cabrera  y  Bobadilla  (Duque  de  Escalona 
y  Marques  de  Villena),  17th  V.  (1640-42). 

Juan  de  Palafox  y  Mendoza  (Bishop  of  Puebla),  18th  V. 
(for  about  5  months) . 

Garcia  Sarmiento  de  Sotomayor  (Count  of  Salvatierra),  19th 
V.  (1642-48). 

Marcos  Lopez  de  Torres  y  Rueda  (Bishop  of  Yucatan),  20th 
V.  (1648-50),  was  a  zealous  bigot,  who  caused  15  persons  to 
be  strangled  and  burned  by  the  Inquisition. 

Luis  Enriquez  de  Guzman  (Count  of  Alba  Liste),  21st  V. 
(1650-53). 

Francisco  Fernandez  de  la  Cueva  (Duque  de  Albuquerque). 
22d  V.  (1653-60). 

Juan  de  Leiva  y  de  la  Cerda  (Marque's  de  Leiva  y  de  Ladrada), 
23d  V.  (166(^64). 

Diego  Osorio  de  Escobar  y  Llamas  (Bishop  of  Puebla),  24th 
V.  (for  a  few  months  in  1664)  was  succeeded  by 

Antonio  Sebastian  de  Toledo,  Molina  y  Salazar,  25th  V. 
(1664-73). 


48  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

Pedro  Nuno  Colon  de  Portugal  y  Castro  (Duque  de  Veraguas), 
26th  V.  (for  six  days  in  1673). 

Fray  Payo  Enriquez  de  Rivera  (Archbishop  of  Mexico),  27th 
V.  (1673-80),  was  a  wise  and  progressive  ruler,  untainted 
by  the  bigotry  which  at  that  time  was  a  clerical  trait. 

Tomds  Antonio  Manrique  de  la  Cerda,  28th  V.  (1680-86). 

Melchor  Portocarrero  Laso  de  la  Vega  (Count  of  Monclova), 
29th  V.  (1686-88),  founded  Monclova  (State  of  Coahuila),  and 
built,  at  his  own  expense,  the  great  aqueduct  which  formerly 
brought  water  from  Chapultepec  to  Mexico  City. 

Gaspar  de  la  Cerda  Sandoval  Silva  y  Mendoza  (Conde  de 
Galve),  30th  V.  (1688-96),  accomplished  the  Conquest  of  Texas 
(1691) ;  founded  (1692)  the  city  of  Pensacola  (Florida) ;  sent 
many  colonists  to  New  Mexico,  and  proved  an  energetic, 
far-sighted,  and  just  ruler.  During  his  reign  the  first  Amer- 
ican newspaper,  El  Mer curio  Volante,  was  established. 

Juan  de  Ortega  Montanez  (Bishop  of  Michoacan),  31st  V. 
(1696),  was  replaced  by 

Jose  Sarmiento  Valladares  (Conde  de  Montezuma),  32d  V. 
(1696-1701),  who  wedded  Maria  Andrea  Montezuma,  third 
Countess  and  fourth  in  descent  from  Montezuma  II,  through 
his  son,1  Pedro  Johualicahuatzin  Montezuma. 

Juan  de  Ortega  Montanez  became  Viceroy  (33d)  a  second 
time  in  1701. 

Fernandez  de  la  Cueva  Enriquez  (Duque  de  Albuquerque), 
34th  V.  (1701-11),  colonized  New  Mexico  and  founded  the  pre- 
sent town  of  Albuquerque  (U.  S.  A.). 

Fernando  de  Alencastro  Marona  y  Silva  (Marques  de 
Valdafuentes),  35th  V.  (1711-16). 

Baltazar  de  Zuniga  Guzman  Sotomayor  y  Mendosa,  36th  V. 
(1716-22). 

Juan  de  Acuna  (Marques  de  Casqfuerte),  37th  V.  (1722-34), 
conducted  the  affairs  of  the  Province  in  a  liberal  and  enlight- 
ened way.  He  was  a  Peruvian,  and  the  only  American-born 
Viceroy. 

Juan  Antonio  de  Vizarron  y  Eguiarreta  (Archbishop  of 
Mexico),  38th  V.  (1734-40). 

Pedro  de  Castro  Figueroa  y  Salazar,  39th  V.  (1740-42). 

Pedro  Cebrian  y  Agustin  (Conde  de  Fuenclara),  40th  V. 
(1742-46),  made  the  first  effort  to  collect  and  tabulate  prac- 
tical statistical  information  concerning  Mexico. 

Juan  Francisco  deGuemes  y  Horcasitas,  41st  V.  (1746-55). 

Agustin  de  Ahumada  y  Vittalon,  42d  V.  (1755-60). 


i  The  Spaniards  impressed  their  wishes  and  their  personality  so  strongly 
on  the  Indians  that  many  of  these  subjects — some  through  inclination, 
others  through  fear— discarded  their  own  names  for  Spanish  titles.  In 
certain  cases  proper  Dames  were  retained  and  Castilian  Christian  names 
were  added. 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  49 

Francisco  Cajigal  de  la  Vega  (ex-Governor  of  Cuba),  43d 
V.  for  a  brief  period. 

Joaquin  de  Monserrat  (Marques  de  Cruillas),  44th  V.  (1760- 
66),  organized  for  the  first  time  a  regular  army  in  Mexico. 

Carlos  Francisco  de  Croix  (Marques  de  Croix),  45th  V. 
(1766-71),  raised  the  salary  of  the  Mexican  Viceroys  from 
$40,000  to  $70,000  a  year.  Many  civic  improvements.  He 
doubled  the  size  of  the  Alameda;  sent  a  royal  convoy  to  Spain 
(1770)  with  thirty  millions  of  silver  pesos,  and  was  instru- 
mental in  enforcing  the  royal  order  (of  June  25,  1767)  which 
expelled  the  Jesuits  from  Mexico*  An  able  ruler. 

Antonio  Maria  de  Bucareli  y  Ursua,  46th  V.  (1771-79), 
d  wise,  benevolent,  and  thoroughly  admirable  man,  whose  in- 
fluence is  yet  felt  in  Mexico.  He  developed  the  country  in  a 
variety  of  ways;  increased  commerse;  minted  $127,396,000 
in  Mex.  silver;  fosteredtKe  mnTEary  strength  of  the  nation, 
and  carried  to  completion  more  civic  reforms  than  had  all  the 
viceroys  combined  who  preceded  him.  With  this  man  arose 
the  star  of  New  Spain.  A  book  could  be  filled  with  the  stories 
(still  current  among  the  people)  of  his  wisdom,  kindness,  and 
judgment.  He  died  in  office  April  9,  1779,  and  was  buried 
with  great  honors  in  the  church  of  Nuestra  Senora  de  Guada- 
lupe.  Several  of  the  principal  streets  of  the  city  (the  Calles 
de  Bucareli,  p.  371)  were  named  for  him,  and  his  memory  is 
fresh  and  sweet  in  the  hearts  of  intelligent  Mexicans. 

Martin  de  Mayor ga  (Governor  of  Guatemala),  47th  V. 
(1779-83). 

Matias  de  Galvez,  surnamed  "The  Diligent,"  48th  V.  (1783- 
85),  an  earnest,  quiet  worker,  with  an  ambition  to^elevate  the 
people^to  better  things. 

tiernardo  de  (Jalvez  (3on  of  Matias  de  G.),  49th  V.  (1785-87), 
constructed  the  Castillo  de  Chapultepec  (p.  386). 

Alonzo  Nunez  de  Haro  y  Peralta  (Archbishop  of  Mexico), 
50th  V.  (1787). 

Manuel  Antonio  Flores  (Governor  of  Bogota").  51st  V. 
(1787-89). 

Juan  Vicente  de  Guemes  Pacheco  de  Padilla  (Conde  de 
Revillagigedo) ,  52d  V.  (1789-94),  a  stern  and  eccentric 
nobleman  with  an  aptitude  for  civic  reform.  He  ably  seconded 
the  work  begun  by  Bucareli;  qaused  the  streets  of  Mexico 
City  to  be  cleaned,  paved,  and  lighted ;  organized  an  efficient 
police  force;  executed  a  number  of  highwaymen;  established 
weekly  posts  between  the  capital  and  outlying  intendencies, 
and  remodelled  the  military  organization.  He  started  an  ex- 
pedition from  Mexico  that  reached  as  far  north  as  Behring's 
Straits.  He  was  wont  to  prowl  the  city's  streets  at  midnight 
in  search  of  abuses,  which  he  summarily  corrected,  and  he 
placed  a  locked  box  with  a  slit  in  the  lid,  in  a  public  place,  for 
the  receipt  of  petitions  and  complaints  from  those  who  could 


50  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

not  obtain  a  personal  interview  with  him.  One  night  he 
entered  a  street  flanked  by  squalid  dwellings  and  terminating 
in  a  cul  de  sac.  The  corregidor  (mayor)  was  at  once  ordered  to 
open  a  wide  highway  and  to  have  it  completed  so  that  he, 
the  Viceroy,  might  drive  through  it  on  his  way  to  mass  the 
following  morning.  A  small  army  of  workmen  were  routed 
out  of  their  beds,  and  the  next  morning  the  Calle  de  Revil- 
lagigedo  (which  now  intersects  the  Avenida  Juarez  at  the 
Alameda  in  Mex.  City)  was  completed. 

Miguel  de  la  Grua  Talamanca  (Marques  de  Branciforte,  an 
Italian  adventurer),  53d  V.  (1794-98),  secured  his  appoint- 
ment by  chicanery,  and  before  his  retirement  succeeded  in 
making  himself  the  most  cordially  detested  official  in  the 
Colony.  During  his  reign  all  that  portion  of  Florida  (now 
U.  S.  A.)  lying  west  of  the  Perdido  River  was  ceded  to  France. 

Miguel  Jose  de  Azanza,  called  "The  Bonapartist,"  54th  V. 
(1798-1800). 

Felix  Berenguer  de  Marquina,  55th  V.  (1800-03),  caused  to 
be  made  the  splendid  equestrian  statue  (comp.  p.  373)  of 
Carlos  IV,  at  Mexico  City. 

Jose  de  Iturrigaray,  "The  Monarchist,"  56th  V.  (1803-08). 

Pedro  Garibay,  i'The  Revolutionist/'  57th  V.  (1808),  ad 
interim. 

Francisco  Javier  Lizana  (Archbishop  of  Mexico),  58th  V. 
(1809-10). 

Pedro  Catani  (Presidente  of  the  Audiencid),  59th  V.  (1810), 
ad  interim. 

Francisco  Javier  Venegas,  60th  V.  (1810-16).  Coincident 
with  the  opening  of  his  reign  began  the  Revolutionary  period. 

Juan  Ruiz  de  Apodaca,  61st  V.  (1816-21),  was  known  as 
"The  Unfortunate,"  because  he  reached  Mexico  when  the 
power  of  Spain  was  declining,  and  the  country  was  in  the  throes 
of  a  revolutionary  war  which  the  Spanish  troops  were  unable 
to  quell. 

Francisco  de  Novella,  Azabal,  Perez  y  Sicardo,  62d  V.  (1821), 
remained  in  office  but  a  few  months,  and  was  the  last  of  the 
vice-regal  line.  He  was  relieved  by 

Juan  O'Donoju,  Captain-General  of  New  Spain,  and  the 
last  Spanish  ruler  in  Mexico.  He  reached  Vera  Cruz  in  1821, 
took  the  oath  of  office  there  Aug.  3,  but  was  prevented  by 
the  revolutionists  from  exercising  his  authority.  He  died 
at  Mexico  City  Oct.  7,  from  an  attack  of  pleurisy  brought  on 
—  it  is  said  —  by  chagrin  at  the  thought  that  Mexico  was  no 
longer  a  Spanish  colony.1 

h.  War  for  Independence.  During  the  reign  of  the  Span- 
ish Viceroy  Jos6  de  Iturrigaray,  in  Mexico,  the  internal  affairs 

1  Portraits  in  oil  of  all  the  succession  of  rulers,  from  Cortes  to  O'Donoju, 
may  be  studied  in  the  National  Museum  (p.  298),  and  in  the  Palacio 
Municipal  (p.  292)  at  Mexico  City. 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  51 

of  Spain  were  hopelessly  muddled ;  Carlos  IV  had  abdicated 
in  favor  of  Ferdinand  VII,  who,  in  turn,  had  been  forced  to 
step  aside  in  favor  of  Joseph  Bonaparte.  Iturrigaray  believed 
that  Mexico  should  govern  itself  (with  a  Spanish  Viceroy  as 
King) ,  and  he  convened  an  assembly  of  notables  with  the  aim 
of  securing  the  necessary  power.  He  won  over  the  masses  by 
promising  to  relinquish  the  regency  as  soon  as  another  Spanish 
King  should  occupy  the  Spanish  throne.  The  Spaniards  in 
Mexico  rebelled,  seized  the  Viceroy,  and  imprisoned  him  in  the 
fortress  of  San  Juan  de  Ulua  (at  Vera  Cruz),  whence  he  was 
sent  back  to  Spain. 

The  independence  idea  appealed  to  the  people  and  they 
nursed  it.  Centuries  of  despotism  and  misgovernment  had 
failed  to  kill  out  the  patriotism  and  strength  of  the  Mexicans, 
and  independence  soon  became  the  chief  thought  of  every 
one.  Correspondence  clubs  were  established  in  some  of  the 
towns,  and  plans  for  an  early  uprising  were  formulated. 
Miguel  Hidalgo  y  Costilla,  parish  priest  of  the  village  of 
Dolores  (in  Guanajuato),  took  the  idea  of  freedom  for  Mexico 
nearest  to  heart.  He  was  a  Creole  (born  May  8,  1753),  nearly 
sixty  years  old,  with  a  powerful  influence  over  the  Indians  of 
his  parish.  He  began  the  manufacture  of  lances,  and  planned 
an  uprising  during  the  annual  Indian  fiesta  which  began  in 
Dec.  His  nearest  confidants  were  the  several  members  of  an 
alleged  Society  for  the  Study  of  the  Fine  Arts,  established  in 
1808  in  the  city  of  Quere'taro.  From  this  centre  a  sustained 
influence  was  soon  radiating,  and  the  society  counted  upon 
many  members  in  the  adjoining  State  of  Guanajuato.  The 
influence  of  the  Mayor  (Corregidor)  of  Quere'taro  was  soon 
secured,  as  well  as  that  of  his  wife,  La  Corregidora,  Dona 
Josef  a  Ortiz  de  Dominguez.  Coincidently  arms  and  ammuni- 
tion, and  the  adherence  of  Captains  Ignacio  Allende  and  Juan 
Aldama  of  the  King's  Regiment,  stationed  hard  by,  were  also 
obtained. 

Mariano  Galvan,  a  traitor  to  the  cause,  imparted  his  know- 
ledge to  the  Quere'taro  postmaster,  who  immediately  repaired 
to  Mexico  City  and  disclosed  the  revolutionary  plans  to  the 
Government.  On  the  night  of  Sept.  13,  an  intimation  of  the 
publicity  of  the  plans  reached  the  ears  of  Rafael  Gil  de  Leon, 
an  ecclesiastic  judge  of  Q.,  and  because  of  his  friendship  for 
the  mayor  he  warned  him.  The  latter  at  once  sought  the  ad- 
vice of  his  wife,  who  in  turn  sent  a  trusty  messenger  to  warn 
Hidalgo  of  his  peril.  The  Cura  was  told  (at  2  A.  M.  Sept.  16) 
that  the  conspiracy  was  discovered,  and  he  decided  to  strike 
the  blow  at  once.  At  early  mass,  he  announced  to  his  parish- 
ioners that  "Spain  was  no  longer  Spanish,  but  was  French, 
and  that  the  time  for  Mexico  to  be  free  had  come."  He  dwelt 
upon  how  the  Spanish  soldiery  had  oppressed  even  the  peace- 
ful inhabitants  of  his  own  village,  stealing  their  savings, 


52  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

ruining  their  fields,  and  violating  their  homes.  The  modest 
silk  industry  started  by  Hidalgo  had  been%  destroyed,  as  the 
Spaniards  had  cut  down  the  mulberry  trees.  The  Indians 
appeared  ripe  for  a  revolt.  Hidalgo  then  rang  the  famous 
liberty  bell  (comp.  p.  268),  and  voiced  the  stirring  appeal 
known  since  as  the  Grito  de  Dolores  (the  cry  from  Dolores). 
This  was,  in  substance:  "Long  live  our  most  Holy  Mother 
of  Guadalupe!  Long  live  America,  and  death  to  bad  govern- 
ment!" The  zealous  patriot  began  the  march  forthwith. 
Passing  the  church  of  Atotonilco,  he  took  therefrom  a  banner 
bearing  a  picture  of  the  Virgin  of  Guadalupe,  and,  affixing  it 
to  his  lance,  adopted  it  as  the  standard  of  the  "Army  of  In- 
dependence." The  making  of  the  struggle  a  religious  war  as 
well  as  one  for  freedom  was  more  the  promptings  of  a  pious 
mind  than  a  premeditated  stroke  of  diplomacy.  The  priest 
felt  that  with  so  redoubtable  a  patroness  victory  would  assur- 
edly be  theirs. 

The  idea  filled  the  Indians  with  enthusiasm,  and  when  the 
insurgents  reached  the  town  of  San  Miguel  that  night,  the 
regiment  to  which  Captain  Allende  belonged  declared  at  once 
for  independence.  Celaya  surrendered  on  Sept.  21,  as  the 
army  marched  through  on  its  way  to  the  rich  city  of  Guana- 
juato. An  organization  of  the  army  was  attempted  at  Celaya, 
and  Hidalgo  was  proclaimed  Captain-General  of  his  20,000 
troops. 

Guanajuato,  capital  of  the  Province  of  G.,  contained  80,000 
inhabitants,  the  richest  silver-mines  in  Spanish- America,  and 
was,  in  point  of  wealth,  second  to  Mexico  City.  After  desperate 
fighting,  the  place  was  captured.  The  Spaniards  took  refuge 
in  the  Alhdndiga,  or  Castle  of  Grenaditas,  and  one  of 
the  bloodiest  battles  of  the  revolution  soon  raged  round  its 
walls.  The  insurgents  were  for  the  most  part  armed  with  bows 
and  arrows,  slings,  machetes  (cane-knives),  and  lances,  and 
while  the  provincial  militia  fought  with  great  determination, 
under  skilled  officers,  the  impetuous  onslaught  of  the  patriots 
won.  Despite  Hidalgo's  earnest  entreaties,  a  general  massacre 
took  place.  Three  centuries  of  Spanish  misrule  and  oppression 
told  upon  the  Indians,  and  their  war-cry,  "  Mueran  los  Gachu- 
pines  "  (death  to  the  Spaniards),  was  emphasized  by  three  days 
of  carnage  and  destruction. 

From  the  Alhdndiga,  Hidalgo  secured  five  millions  of  pesos, 
which  went  to  swell  the  treasury  of  the  revolutionists.  The 
province  declared  for  him  and  many  of  the  provincial  militia 
deserted  to  his  standard.  He  at  once  had  the  bells  of  the  city 
cast  into  cannon,  employed  the  mint  to  coin  money  (in  the 
name  of  Ferdinand  VII),  and  continued  his  attempts  to  organ- 
ize his  army. 

Meanwhile  the  Viceroy  had  awakened  to  the  dangers  of  the 
situation,  and  was  sending  out  troops  under  skilled  command- 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  63 

ers  to  combat  the  insurgents,  and  to  protect  places  along 
their  proposed  line  of  march.  The  Church  became  alarmed  at 
the  peril  which  threatened  it  through  a  government  over 
which  it  had  established  a  quasi-protectorate.  The  Bishop 
of  Michoacan  hurled  edicts  of  excommunication  against  all 
insurgents,  and  Archbishop  Lizana^  issued  a  pastoral  letter 
combating  the  principles  upon  which  Hidalgo  justified  the 
revolution,  and  ordering  the  Spanish  and  Creole  clergy  to 
declare  from  their  pulpits,  and  cause  it  to  be  everywhere 
known,  that  the  purpose  of  the  revolution  was  to  subvert  the 
Holy  Catholic  Church.  The  Inquisition  charged  Hidalgo  with 
every  error  of  which  that  tribunal  took  cognizance.  The  Vice- 
roy Venegas  published  a  proclamation  offering  a  reward  of 
ten  thousand  pesos  for  the  capture,  dead  or  alive,  of  Hidalgo 
and  his  two  chief  military  companions. 

The  army  left  Guanajuato  (Oct.  10)  and  proceeded  to 
Valladolid  (now  Morelia),  which  immediately  declared  for 
independence.  Upon  the  approach  of  the  army,  the  Bishop, 
Council,  and  civil  authorities  evacuated  the  place.  Here  Hi- 
dalgo's force  was  swelled  by  a  considerable  body  of  soldiery, 
and  the  erstwhile  country  priest  found  himself  at  the  head 
of  an  undisciplined  army  of  80,000  men.  He  took  vast  sums 
from  the  coffers  of  the  Valladolid  Cathedral,  but  was  excom- 
municated by  the  Bishop  of  the  diocese  for  the  act.  Here  he 
also  learned  of  a  vice-regal  proclamation  decreeing  that  any 
one  taken  with  arms  against  the  Government  would  be  shot 
within  fifteen  minutes  after  capture  without  the  "  benefit  of 
clergy." 

The  army  began  its  march  to  Mexico  City,  gaining  new 
adherents  by  the  way.  Hidalgo  reviewed  his  troops  at  Aca*m- 
baro  and  was  proclaimed  "  Generalisimo."  Oct.  30,  he  fought 
his  first  engagement  with  the  royal  forces  in  the  field  (at 
Monte  de  las  Cruces) ,  and  won  a  signal  victory  over  the  Span- 
ish forces  under  General  Truxillo.  The  defeat  demoralized 
the  vice-regal  army,  and  had  Hidalgo  moved  at  once  upon  the 
capital,  it  is  probable  that  it  would  have  fallen  into  his  hands 
and  given  success  to  his  plans.  Herein  he  proved  a  poor 
generalisimo,  and  showed  a  lack  of  military  sagacity.  After 
advancing  to  the  hacienda  of  Quaximalpa  (5  leagues  from  the 
panic-stricken  capital)  and  sending  a  summons  (which  elicited 
no  reply)  to  the  Viceroy  to  surrender,  he  retreated  with  his 
army  toward  the  interior  of  the  country.  On  Nov.  7,  the  army 
encountered  a  train  of  artillery  and  10,000  well-equipped 
Creole  troops  commanded  by  General  Felix  Maria  Calleja  del 
Rey,  who  had  been  sent  out  to  concentrate  the  vice-regal 
forces.  In  the  desperate  battle  which  ensued,  Hidalgo's  In- 
dians displayed  more  courage  than  discretion ;  rushing  with 
their  clubs  and  improvised  lances  upon  the  bayonets  of  the 
enemy,  to  fall  in  heaps.  They  were  so  ignorant  of  the  effects 


54  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

of  artillery  that  they  ran  up  to  cannon  in  action  and  attempted 
to  stop  them  with  their  sombreros.  After  beating  a  hasty  re- 
treat, it  was  found  that  they  had  suffered  a  loss  equal  to  the 
entire  Spanish  force. 

Entering  Guadalajara,  Hidalgo  concentrated  his  forces  and 
organized  a  government.  Calleja  went  to  Guanajuato,  and 
made  that  city  the  scene  of  notable  cruelties  in  retaliation 
for  the  excesses  committed  by  Hidalgo's  Indians.  Fourteen 
thousand  of  the  inhabitants  were  butchered. 

A  commissioner  sent  by  Hidalgo  from  Guadalajara  to  the 
United  States  was  captured  by  the  Spaniards,  the  patriot's 
plans  and  resources  were  learned,  and  his  downfall  hastened. 
While  he  was  engaged  in  promulgating  decrees  abolishing 
slavery  and  stamp  duties,  royal  forces  were  sent  against  him, 
a  battle  was  fought  at  Puente  de  C  alder  on  (Jan.  16,  1811), 
and  the  army  of  independence  dispersed.  Hidalgo,  Allende, 
Aldama,  and  Jimenez  held  together  and  started  northward, 
intending  to  secure  assistance  and  purchase  arms  in  the 
United  States.  They  were  captured  and  later  executed, 
and  their  heads  taken  to  Guanajuato  and  placed  upon  pikea 
at  the  four  corners  of  the  Alhondiga,  as  "a  warning  to  Mex- 
icans who  chose  to  revolt  against  Spanish  government." 
There  the  heads  remained  until  independence  was  won.  In 
1823,  their  bodies  were  buried  under  the  Altar  de  los  Reyes, 
in  the  apse  of  the  Mexico  City  Cathedral. 

Hidalgo's  logical  successor  was  his  pupil,  Jose  Maria  More~ 
los,  a  Mestizo,  a  Catholic  priest,  an  intrepid  fighter,  and  a  com- 
mander of  marked  ability.  He  took  over  the  command  and 
began  a  successful  and  destructive  campaign  against  the  Span- 
iards. In  six-and-twenty  hard-fought  engagements  he  was 
successful  in  all  but  two.  In  a  battle  near  Acapulco  (whither 
he  was  sent  by  Hidalgo  in  1810),  he  defeated  the  vice-regal 
troops,  captured  800  muskets,  5  pieces  of  artillery,  700  pris- 
oners, much  ammunition,  and  a  large  sum  of  money.  After 
the  war  he  was  known  as  "The  Hero  of  a  Hundred  Battles." 

Among  the  trusted  lieutenants  of  Morelos  was  another 
priest,  Mariano  Matamoros,  noted  for  his  military  genius. 
Aiding  him  were  the  celebrated  Dr.  Cos,  the  Bravos  brothers, 
Galena,  Manuel  de  Mier  y  Teran,  Felix  Hernandez,  Ignacio 
Lopez  Rayon,  Jose  Maria  Liceaga,  and  a  host  of  ambitious 
patriots. 

Early  in  1812  two  battalions  of  Spanish  troops,  including 
a  famous  regiment  of  Asturias  (which  had  won  the  title  of 
41  the  Invincibles"  in  the  Peninsula),  came  to  Mexico  to  sup- 
port the  vice-regal  government,  and  to  assist  in  reducing  the 
Independents  to  subjection.  The  insurgents  were  severely 
punished,  but  their  military  exploits  were  not  checked.  A 
guerrilla  warfare  now  raged  throughout  the  colony,  and  the 
royal  troops  were  harassed  incessantly.  The  exploits  of  the 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  55 

rancheros  (ranchmen)  formed  one  of  the  most  picturesque 
chapters  of  the  long  war.  Expert  in  the  use  of  the  lariat; 
born  with  an  aptitude  for  guerrilla  fighting,  hardy,  brave,  and 
persistent,  they  were  to  the  Spaniards  what  Morgan  and  his 
shifty  band  were  to  the  Northern  troops  during  the  American 
war  of  1864.  They  travelled  usually  in  small  groups,  and 
scattered  when  danger  threatened,  to  reunite  at  some  given 
point  miles  away.  Each  unit  was  a  formidable  fighting  ma- 
chine, at  once  dreaded  and  detested  by  the  Iberian  troops, 
who  were  unused  to  being  dragged  from  their  saddles  by  a 
hurtling  lasso,  bumped  across  a  cacti-strewn  plain  and  trussed 
and  hustled  like  yearling  steers. 

Morelos  now  called  a  Congress  of  Mexicans,  and  essayed  to 
organize  an  Independent  Nation.  Forty  deputies  assembled 
at  Chilpancingo  in  Sept.,  1813,  and  Morelos  was  nominated 
Captain-General  of  the  Independent  forces;  decrees  were 
passed  abolishing  slavery,  imprisonment  for  debt,  and  the 
collection  of  tithes  for  the  support  of  religious  societies.  The 
Congress  removed  to  Tlaeotepec,  and  finally  convened  in 
Apatzingan,  where  it  published  (Nov.  16,  1813)  its  formal 
Declaration  of  Independence  of  Spain.  "  Mexico  was  declared 
free  from  Spanish  control,  with  liberty  to  work  out  its  own 
destiny,  and  with  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  for  its  spiritual 
guidance."  The  name  chosen  for  the  new  nation  was  "The 
Kingdom  of  Analiuac."  A  Constitution,  liberal  in  its  pro- 
visions, was  adopted.  Copies  of  this,  and  the  Declaration, 
were,  by  order  of  the  Viceroy,  ceremoniously  burned  in  pub- 
lic in  the  City  of  Mexico,  and  in  the  principal  towns  of  the 
Republic. 

Morelos  now  undertook  to  traverse  a  section  of  the  country 
in  possession  of  the  Spaniards,  and  was  captured  (near  Tex- 
malaca),  loaded  with  chains,  and  taken  as  a  prisoner  to  the 
capital.  He  was  brought  before  the  Holy  Office,  condemned, 
and  his  auto-de-fe  was  the  last  pronounced  by  the  Inquisition 
in  Mexico.  After  being  degraded  by  the  priesthood  he  was 
handed  over  to  the  secular  arm,  and  was  shot  at  San  Cristobal 
Ecatepec  in  Dec.,  1815. 

The  heroic  days  of  the  revolution  ended  with  Morelos,  and 
the  cause  soon  languished.  When  (Sept.,  1816)  Calleja  del  Rey 
was  succeeded  in  the  Virreinato  by  Juan  Ruiz  de  Apodaca,  the 
insurgents  were  apparently  under  Spanish  control.  Every 
captured  revolutionist  had  been  summarily  shot.  With  the 
exception  of  the  freebooting  expedition  of  Francisco  Javier 
Mina,  in  1817,  Mexico  was  so  little  disturbed  by  actual  war 
until  1820,  that  the  Viceroy,  whose  policy  was  conciliatory, 
reported  to  the  Regent  that  he  would  answer  for  the  safety 
of  Mexico,  and  that  there  was  no  need  of  sending  any  more 
troops  from  Spain. 

But  a  formidable  uprising  soon  occurred,  and  the  Viceroy 


56  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

appointed  Agustin  de  Iturbide,  commander  of  the  District 
of  the  South.  After  fighting  a  few  engagements  with  the  in- 
surgents under  General  Vicente  Guerrero,  Iturbide  met  the 
latter  and  proposed  that  they  should  unite  in  proclaiming 
the  independence  of  Mexico.  In  conformity,  Iturbide  pub- 
lished (Feb.  24)  the  famous  Plan  de  Iguala  known  as  Las 
Tres  Garantias,  in  that  it  provided  for  the  conservation  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  for  the  absolute  independence  of 
Mexico  as  a  moderate  monarchy,  with  an  ostensible  adhesion 
to  Ferdinand  VII,  and  for  the  union  of  Spaniards  and  Mex- 
icans in  the  bonds  of  friendship.  The  plan  received  the  im- 
mediate support  of  the  clergy,  who  just  now  found  themselves 
in  an  awkward  situation.1 

The  colors  of  the  Mexican  flag  (adopted  April  14,  1823) 
represented  the  Tres  Garantias :  white  (religious  purity) ;  red 
(union  of  Spaniards  and  Mexicans);  green  (independence). 
Iturbide's  army  was  thereafter  called  the  Army  of  the  Three 
Guarantees. 

Revolutionary  leaders,  who  had  retired  from  the  struggle 
discouraged,  came  to  the  front,  the  people  arose  en  masse, 
and  Mexico  was  soon  aflame  with  the  sacred  cause  of  patri- 
otism. The  Viceroy,  Apodaca  (the  Unfortunate),  was  forced 
to  resign,  and  Francisco  de  Novella  became  Viceroy  ad  interim. 
The  Plan  de  Iguala  was  a  popular  success,  and  Iturbide  cap- 
tured the  cities  of  Valladolid,  Quere*taro,  and  Puebla,  and 
laid  siege  to  Mexico  City.  When  General  Juan  O'Donoju, 
bearing  the  commission  of  Captain-General,  arrived  at  Vera 
Cruz  (July  30,  1821)  to  supersede  the  Viceroy  Novella,  he 
found  the  country  in  the  hands  of  the  Independents,  and  Vera 
Cruz  itself  in  the  possession  of  the  Independent  Chief,  Antonio 
Lopez  de  Santa  Anna  (b.  Feb.  21,  1795,  d.  June  21,  1876). 

The  Spanish  representative  was  placed  in  the  embarrassing 
position  of  having  to  ask  of  Santa  Anna  the  privilege  of  land- 
ing upon  the  continent,  and  of  requesting  of  Iturbide  a  safe 
conduct  to  the  capital.  Perceiving  that  it  would  be  impossible 
to  arrest  the  revolution  by  force,  O'Donoju  proposed  to  treat 
with  Iturbide.  They  met  at  Cordoba  (Aug.  24,  1821),  and 
O'Donoju  signed,  on  behalf  of  his  Government,  the  "Treaty 
of  Cordoba."  J^mbodied  the  Plan  de  Iguala;  declarsdMejdco 
sovereign  and  independent ;  provided  for  a  constitutional 

1  In  1820  the  Spanish  revolutionists  proclaimed  the  Constitution  of 
1812,  and  Ferdinand  found  himself  under  the  necessity  of  supporting  it. 
This  Constitution  dissolved  the  convents,  abolished  the  Inquisition,  or- 
dained the  freedom  of  the  press,  and  seized  the  tithes  of  the  secular  clergy 
on  the  ground  that  the  money  was  required  by  the  State  in  a  great  emer- 
gency. The  Mexican  clergy  at  once  found  their  privileges  and  alleged 
rights  menaced,  and  despite  the  fact  that  nine  years  before,  they  had 
opposed  the  revolution  in  Mexico,  and  had  denounced  as  heretical  the 
idea  of  Independence  or  separation  from  Spain,  they  now  discovered 
that  their  interests  demanded  'Jan  absolute  separation  from  Spain  and 
its  radicalism  I" 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  57 

representative  monarchy,  for  the  call  of  the  Bourbon  family 
of  Spain  to  the  throne,  and  for  the  immediate  establishment 
of  a  pro  visional/ government,  pending  the  arrival  of  the 
chosen  monarch.  It  also  assured  to  the  people  the  liberty  of 
the  press,  and  the  equal  rights  of  Spaniards  and  Mexicans, 
and  provided  that  the  Army  of  the  Three  Guarantees  should 
occupy  the  capital,  and  that  the  Spanish  troops  should  be 
sent  out  of  the  country  as  soon  as  possible. 

Iturbide  made  his  triumphal  entry  into  Mexico  City  Sept. 
27, 1821,  and  on  that  date  ended  the  Spanish  power  in  Mexico. 
He  was  hailed  as  "  Liberator,"  and  the  occasion  was  marked 
by  great  rejoicing.  The  title  of  Lord  High  Admiral  was  con- 
ferred upon  him,  and  as  Generalisimo  of  the  Army  and  head 
of  the  nation,  the  people  addressed  him  as  Serene  Highness. 

Guatemala  voluntarily  united  with  Mexico  Feb.  21,  1822 
(it  seceded  July  1, 1823),  and  Iturbide  found  himself  the  mas- 
ter of  a  nation  whose  territorial  extent  was  one  of  the  greatest 
in  the  world  —  China  and  Russia  alone  being  larger.  Its  pos- 
sessions comprised,  in  addition  to  the  present  Republic  of 
Mexico,  Guatemala  on  the  south,  and  on  the  north  all  the 
region  between  the  Red  and  Arkansas  Rivers  and  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  extending  as  far  north  as  the  present  northern  bound- 
ary of  the  United  States. 

To  the  great  disgust  of  the  old  Spanish  nobility  he  instituted 
an  order  of  nobility,  calling  the  members  Caballeros  (gentle- 
men) de  Guadalupe,  and  embarked  upon  a  riotous  course 
which  soon  caused  his  downfall. 

i.  First  Empire.  The  First  Congress  of  the  Mexican  Nation 
convened  Feb.  24,  1822,  and  was  found  to  comprise  three 
distinct  parties,  notwithstanding  the  oath  taken  by  each 
deputy  to  support  the  Plan  de  Iguala  and  the  Treaty  of  C6r- 
doba.  One  party  —  composed  of  the  army,  the  clergy,  and 
a  few  malcontents — wanted  to  place  Iturbide  on  the  throne. 
The Republicanos  wanted  the  "Plan"  set  aside  and  a  Federal 
Republic  established.  The  Independents  and  the  Spaniards 
—  united  only  in  their  hatred  of  Iturbide  —  desired  to  have 
executed  exactly  the  Plan  de  Iguala  by  placing  on  the  throne 
a  Spanish  Prince.  The  meeting  was  the  signal  for  hostilities 
which  extended  over  nearly  fifty  years. 

On  May  18,  1822,  the  "Liberator"  forced  a  pronuncia- 
miento  in  his  favor  in  the  cuartel  (barracks)  of  San  Hipolito 
(Mexico  City),  and  in  a  turbulent  meeting  of  Congress,  from 
which  Republican  members  were  excluded,  Iturbide  was 
elected  Emperor  of  Mexico  by  a  vote  of  75  to  15.  He  immedi- 
ately took  the  oath  of  office  before  Congress,  and  organized 
a  Provisional  Council  of  State.  On  the  21st  of  July  he  and  his 
wife  were  anointed  and  crowned  with  great  solemnity  in  the 
Mexico  City  Cathedral;  Iturbide  assumed  the  title  of  Agustin 
/,  Emperador.  His  first  act  was  to  dissolve  the  existing  Con- 


58  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

gress,  imprison  its  most  contumacious  members,  and  replace 
them  by  a  junta  composed  of  two  deputies  from  each  province, 
of  his  own  selection. 

j.  Fall  of  the  Empire  and  Rise  of  the  Republic.  A  mon- 
archical government  for  Mexico  was  unsatisfactory  to  the 
Revolutionary  leaders.  The  bombast  of  the  arrogant,  pageant- 
loving  Mestizo  seemed  a  poor  result  for  the  sacrifice  of  the 
good  cura  Hidalgo,  of  the  intrepid  Morelos,  Allende,  Aldama, 
and  a  hundred  other  pure-minded  patriots.  For  a  time  Iturbide 
was  able  to  quell  the  uprisings  by  the  aid  of  national  troops, 
but  the  empire  fell  into  disrepute,  and  soon  collapsed.  Gen- 
eral Antonio  Lopez  de  Santa  Anna  headed  (Dec.,  1822)  a  for- 
midable uprising  in  Jalapa,  and  in  a  month's  time  Iturbide's 
alleged  empire  was  reduced  to  the  limits  of  Mexico  City. 
Guerrero  and  Bravo  followed  the  example  of  Santa  Anna  and 
led  a  revolt  in  the  North.  The  country  was  soon  aflame  with 
anger,  and  rather  than  provoke  a  civil  war  Iturbide  abdicated 
(March  20, 1823),  and  under  a  declaration  of  banishment  from 
the  country,  he  was  permitted  to  retire  from  the  capital.  His 
salary  as  Emperor  had  been  $125,000  a  year  (which  he  paid 
to  himself  from  forced  loans  and  with  paper  money  issued  by 
his  commands) ,  and  in  recognition  of  his  eminent  services  to 
Mexico  he  was  granted  a  life  annuity  of  $25,000.  Soon  after 
his  retirement  he  wrote  from  London  to  the  Mexican  Govern- 
ment, warning  it  of  the  machinations  of  the  "  Holy  Alliance7' 
to  restore  Spanish  rule  in  Mexico.  He  offered  his  services 
should  an  attempt  be  made.  Congress  replied  (April  28)  to  his 
letter  by  a  decree  declaring  that  should  Iturbide  return  he 
would  be  regarded  as  a  traitor  and  be  put  to  death.  Unaware 
of  this,  Iturbide  landed  in  disguise  at  Soto  la  Marina  (July 
14,  1824),  was  arrested,  brought  before  the  legislature  of  the 
State  of  Tamaulipas,  and  condemned  to  death.  He  was  shot 
July  24,  1824. 

The  PlanofjLQuala.  with  its  three  guamntee^j^Rfiligion, 
IndependelacerianU-tJn^^  were 

now  repudiated  by  Congress.  The  bars  of  green,  white,  and  red 
in  the  flag  of  the  Tres  Garantias  had  been  horizontal ;  they 
were  now  changed  to  upright,  with  the  green  bar  next  to  the 
staff,  and  this  was  adopted  as  the  flag  of  the  Republic.  The 
national  coat-of-arms,  showing  an  eagle  upon  a  nopal  cactus, 
strangling  a  serpent,  was  also  adopted. 

A  Congress  was  installed  (Nov.,  1823)  to  discuss  the  adoption 
of  a  fundamental  law  for  the  country,  and  it  drew  up  an  in- 
strument closely  resembling  that  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States.  It  contained  thirty-six  articles  (proclaimed 
in  the  form  of  a  Constitution,  Oct.  4,  1824)  and  it  defined  the 
government  to  be  Popular,  Representative,  Federal,  and  Re- 
publican. It  proclaimed  the  national  sovereigntv;  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  States  (allowing  them  independent  govern- 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  59 

ment  in  internal  affairs,  without  prejudice  to  the  rights  of  the 
Federal  Government) ;  the  organization  of  the  supreme  power, 
the  independence  of  the  judicial  powers,  and  guaranteed  to 
the  clergy  their  already  vested  rights.  This  new  Republic 
comprised  five  territories  and  nineteen  states;  each  of  the 
latter  with  a  governor,  legislature,  and  a  tribunal  of  justice. 
The  States  were  to  organize  their  governments  in  conformity 
to  the  Federal  Act.  The  general  powers  of  the  National  Gov- 
ernment resided  in  the  Federal  District  (Mexico  City)  and 
comprised  a  General  Congress,  a  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature, 
and  a  President  —  of  the  United  Mexican  States  —  with  four 
Ministers.  The  legislative  power  was  vested  in  a  Congress 
comprising  a  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives.  The 
Supreme  Court  was  to  be  composed  of  11  judges,  elected  by 
the  legislatures  of  the  several  States. 

The  third  article  of  the  Constitution  was  significant:  "The 
Religion  of  the  Mexican  Nation  is,  and  will  perpetually  be, 
the  Roman  Catholic  Apostolic.  The  nation  will  protect  it  by 
wise  and  just  laws,  and  prohibit  the  exercise  of  any  other 
whatever." 

The  Constitution  was  received  by  the  people  with  custom- 
ary enthusiasm.  Felix  Fernandez,  who  styled  himself  Guada- 
lupe  Victoria  (in  homage  to  the  Virgin  of  Guadalupe) ,  took  the 
oath  of  office  (Oct.  4,  1825)  as  the  first  President  of  Mexico, 
and  the  country  began  its  career  as  a  Constitutional  Republic. 

In  1825  the  fortress  of  San  Juan  de  Ulua  (Vera  Cruz),  until 
then  held  by  the  last  of  the  Spanish  forces,  was  evacuated, 
and  the  Republic  of  Mexico  received  the  formal  recognition 
of  England  and  the  United  States.  The  paternal  support 
received  by  the  fledgeling  Republic  from  the  great  American 
Republic  at  the  north  gave  it  an  impetus  which  had  potent 
bearing  on  its  future.  The  message  of  President  Monroe  (Dec., 
1823)  to  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  contained  the  fol- 
lowing significant  declarations : 

"  (1)  The  American  Continents,  by  the  free  and  independent  condition 
which  they  have  assumed  and  maintained,  are  henceforth  not  to  be  con- 
sidered as  subjects  for  future  colonization  by  any  foreign  power  :  (2) 
Any  attempt  on  the  part  of  European  Powers  to  extend  their  political 
systems  to  any  portion  of  the  Western  Hemisphere  would  be  considered 
dangerous  to  the  peace  and  safety  of  the  United  States.  Any  interposi- 
tion by  such  Powers  for  the  purpose  of  opposing  or  controlling  the  gov- 
ernments which  have  declared  their  independence  and  maintained  it, 
and  whose  independence  had  been  acknowledged  by  the  United  States, 
could  not  be  viewed  in  any  other  light  than  as  a  manifestation  of  an  un- 
friendly disposition  to  the  United  States;  that  the  political  system  of 
European  Powers  could  not  be  extended  to  any  portion  of  either  of  the 
American  continents  without  endangering  the  peace  and  happiness  of 
the  United  States,  nor  would  such  extension  be  regarded  with  indiffer- 
ence." 

This  "Monroe  Doctrine"  bomb-shell  " launched  into  the 
armed  camps  of  Europe"  enabled  the  Mexican  Republic  to 
start  on  its  eventful  career  unhampered  by  foreign  interfer- 


60  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

ence ;  it  was  effectual  in  preventing  Spain  from  making  further 
serious  attempts  to  reclaim  her  lost  provinces  in  America, 
although  she  withheld  the  recognition  of  the  Republic  of 
Mexico  until  1836.  (Comp.  p.  clx.) 

The  Free  and  Independent  Republic  progressed  during  the 
wise  administration  (4  years)  of  its  first  President.  He  signal- 
ized (1825)  the  anniversary  of  the  Grito  de  Dolores  by  the  lib- 
eration of  certain  slaves  purchased  by  the  Government  with 
a  fund  raised  for  that  purpose ;  and  of  other  slaves  given  up. 
by  their  owners  with  the  same  object  in  view.  A  law  was 
passed  (1826)  abolishing  all  titles  of  nobility  and  restricting 
parents  with  regard  to  the  distribution  of  property  among 
their  children,  thus  striking  a  blow  at  the  Spanish  institu- 
tion of  mayorazgo,  or  primogeniture.  The  treasury  was  full  of 
money  (the  remainder  of  a  loan  of  sixteen  millions  of  dollars, 
negotiated  at  London  in  1823  and  known  as  the  -'English 
Debt"),  and  the  future  was  bright. 

But  the  Church  —  then  a  hot-bed  of  insurrection  and 
unrest  —  squirmed  under  its  restrictions  and  the  loss  of  power 
arrogated  to  itself  under  vice-regal  rule.  Any  government 
not  wholly  ecclesiastical  was  viewed  by  the  clergy  with  dis- 
trust, and  the  first  rift  in  the  lute  came  (1827)  in  the  form  of 
an  insurrection  headed  by  two  Franciscan  friars,  who  aimed 
to  restore  the  prestige  lost  by  Spain  and  the  Mother  Church. 
The  incident  caused  a  strong  anti-Spanish  feeling,  and  a  decree 
was  secured  (1828)  by  the  Federalists  for  the  expulsion  of  all 
Spaniards  from^  Mexico. 

A  great  warring  ensued  between  the  Centralists  or  Con- 
servatives (the  Church  party)  and  the  Federalists  or  Liberals 
(Republican  party),  and  albeit  the  Spaniards  were  permitted 
to  remain  in  the  country,  peace  was  henceforth  but  illusory, 
and  was  maintained  by  force  of  arms. 

Prominent  among  the  turbulent  spirits  of  this  era  was 
General  Antonio  Lopez  de  Santa  Anna,  a  shrewd  but  unprin- 
cipled Creole ;  accomplished,  courageous,  and  quick  to  espouse 
any  cause  that  promised  personal  advancement.  He  attained 
to  the  presidency  in  1832  —  after  a  series  of  "  mimic  revolu- 
tions" which  extended  over  four  or  five  years  —  and  until  his 
final  overthrow  the  Republic  was  in  a  turmoil  which  made 
material  progress  impossible. 

Combating  retrogression  and  striving  to  advance  their 
country,  such  men  as  Vicente  Guerrero,  General  Manuel  Gomez 
Pedraza,  General  Bravo,  and  Valentin  Gomez  Farias  (at  one 
time  Vice-President)  were  prominent  among  the  honorable, 
intelligent,  and  democratic  spirits  of  the  epoch.  Gomez  Farias 
aimed  to  secure  the  absolute  liberty  of  the  press ;  the  abolish- 
ment of  special  class  privileges  whereby  the  clergy  and  the 
army  gained  great  advantages  over  the  masses;  the  separa- 
tion of  Church  and  State,  including  the  suppression  of  monas- 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  61 

tic  institutions  (the  great  idea  made  effective  by  the  Leyes  de 
Reforma  of  President  Juarez  nearly  three  decades  later); 
the  abolition  of  the  right  of  ecclesiastics  to  interfere  in  secular 
affairs ;  the  restoration  and  maintenance  of  the  national  credit 
by  a  readjustment  of  the  public  debt;  and  a  host  of  measures 
which  would  have  worked  for  the  country's  good. 

He  succeeded  in  establishing  a  decree  abolishing  the  system 
of  tithes  levied  as  a  tax  for  the  support  of  ecclesiastical  insti^ 
tutions;  and  another  enjoining  the  civil  courts  from  maintain- 
ing the  binding  force  of  monastic  vows,  leaving  members  of 
religious  organizations  free  to  abandon  their  convents  if  they 
chose  to  do  so.  In  many  wise  acts  he  began  the  system  of 
government  reforms  which  it  took  the  remainder  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  to  see  accomplished. 

Santa  Anna,  who  meanwhile  had  been  in  retirement  on  his 
hacienda  at  Mango  de  Clava,  secured  again  the  reins  of  gov- 
ernment (1834),  annulled  the  liberal  decrees  of  Gomez  Farias, 
deposed  that  able  and  honorable  man  from  the  Vice-Presi- 
dency, and  compelled  him  to  leave  the  country.  The  lovers  of 
liberal  institutions  and  good  government  looked  on  with  dis- 
may, but  without  power  to  interfere.  Mexico's  universal  repu- 
tation for  unstable  government  was  now  assured.  Its  people 
were  regarded  as  restless  and  revolutionary,  and  in  some  quar- 
ters as  being  savage  and  uncivilized.  The  elevation  of  Santa 
Anna  to  the  unlimited  power  of  Dictator  was  destined  to  con- 
firm this  evil  reputation. 

In  May,  1835,  the  Plan  de  Tolucq  was  promulgated,  whereby 
the  Federal  System  was  declared  changed  into  a  Central- 
ized Government,  termed  by  decree  the  Central  Republic. 
A  new  Constitution  was  adopted  by  Congress,  known  as  Las 
Siete  Leyes  —  the  seven  laws.  It  confirmed  the  Centralized 
System,  with  but  one  House  of  Legislature  for  the  entire 
country.  The  States  were  changed  into  Departments,  under 
the  control  of  Military  Commandants,  who  were  responsible  to 
the  chief  authority  of  the  nation.  The  Republic  now  became 
a  military  oligarchy,  and  until  1847  the  supreme  power  was 
vested  in  whoever  might  be,  at  the  time,  the  most  successful 
military  leader.  Conditions  in  Mexico  were  almost  anarchical ; 
life  was  unsafe,  property  was  not  respected,  and  the  reputation 
of  the  country  abroad  was  of  the  worst. 

k.  The  War  with  the  United  States.1  "In  1820,  Moses 
Austin,  a  resident  of  Missouri,  U.  S.  A.,  obtained  the  privilege 
of  settling  in  Texas  under  the  plea  of  being  a  Roman  Catholic 
persecuted  by  Protestants.  A  certain  element  in  the  U.  S.  A. 
believed  that  Texas  belonged  more  to  their  Government  than 
to  that  of  Mexico,  and  that  President  Monroe,  in  voluntarily 
surrendering  it  to  Spain  (at  the  time  of  the  cession  of  Florida), 

1  Consult  History  of  the  American  Civil  War,  by  John  W.  Draper; 
M.D.,  LL.D.  (New  York,  1868.) 


62  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

acted  unwisely.  Moses  Austin  died  prematurely,  but  his  son, 
Stephen  F.  Austin,  carried  put  his  intentions,  and  the  Ameri- 
cans obtained  a  foothold  in  the  country.  In  1821,  Mexico 
granted  certain  charters  to  colonists,  which  from  time  to  time 
were  renewed  by  the  successive  governments.  In  1827  and 
1829,  ineffectual  attempts  were  made  by  the  American  Govern- 
ment to  purchase  Texas  from  Mexico.  It  was  obvious  that  the 
possession  of  it  was  absolutely  necessary  to  the  South,  in  order 
that  her  system  might  have  freedom  of  expansion  westwardly, 
and  an  equipoise  be  maintained  with  the  North,  in  Congress. 
Adventurers  were  often  encouraged  by  the  prevailing  public 
sentiment  to  emigrate  to  it,  with  the  intention  of  detaching  it 
forcibly  from  Mexico.  The  Anglo-Saxon  traditions  of  these 
settlers  were  so  at  variance  with  Spanish  institutions,  that 
the  fickle  and  dictatorial  government  of  Santa  Anna  soon 
goaded  them  into  rebellion.  Many  arbitrary  acts  on  the  part 
of  the  Mexican  Government  aided  in  the  precipitation  of  this 
revolt,  which,  on  account  of  the  many  internal  dissensions, 
it  was  little  able  to  counteract. 

"When  the  Federal  Mexican  Government  abrogated  the 
State  Constitution,  in  1835,  thus  despoiling  the  Texans  of  the 
rights  granted  them  by  the  Constitution  of  1824,  it  precipi- 
tated a  crisis.  General  Sam  Houston,  a  Virginian  by  birth, 
led  the  Texans  in  their  fight  for  independence.  Santa  Anna, 
whose  '  uninterrupted  military  successes  had  emboldened  him 
to  adopt  the  self-assumed  title  of  the  Napoleon  of  the  West/ 
set  out,  in  Feb.,  1836,  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  8,000  of  the 
best  troops  of  Mexico,  to  suppress  the  rebellion.  The  Texans 
were  defeated  at  the  Alamo  and  Goliad,  and  those  of  them 
who  were  taken  prisoners  of  war  were  atrociously  murdered 
in  cold  blood.  The  whole  garrison  of  the  Alamo  was  put  to  the 
sword.  The  Texans  had  hitherto  belittled  the  valor  of  their 
antagonists,  but  the  barbaric  despotism  of  Santa  Anna  goaded 
them  to  fury  and  made  peace  impossible.  On  the  23d  of 
April,  783  men,  under  General  Houston,  met  the  Dictator  at 
the  San  Jacinto  River,  and  after  a  battle  which  lasted  only 
20  minutes,  they  captured  the  whole  Mexican  army,  including 
Santa  Anna.  The  character  of  this  conflict  may  be  understood 
from  the  statement  that  the  Mexicans  killed  were  630,  the 
wounded  208.  Nothing  but  the  firmness  of  the  American  com- 
mander saved  Santa  Anna  from  immediate  execution.  The 
Mexican  President,  thus  constrained  in  his  extremity,  was 
obliged  to  acknowledge  the  independence  of  Texas.  Hereupon 
he  was  liberated,  and  allowed  to  return  to  his  country  by  way 
of  the  United  States.  This,  he  seemed  in  no  hurry  to  do,  and 
he  did  not  return  to  Mexico  City  until  nearly  a  year  after  his 
capture  by  the  Texans.  He  then  addressed  a  letter  to  the  Mexi- 
can Secretary  of  War,  disavowing  all  treaties  and  stipulations 
made  with  the  Texans  under  duress.  Meanwhile  the  new 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  63 

Republic  of  Texas  was  established  in  October,  1836,  with  a 
Constitution  modelled  on  that  of  the  United  States,  and  with 
General  Houston  as  its  first  President.  The  United  States 
forthwith  acknowledged  its  independence,  as  did  France, 
England,  and  Belgium.  The  new  Republic  maintained  its  sep- 
arate existence  until  1844.  Repeated  efforts  were  made  to 
have  it  annexed  to  the  U.  S.  A.,  and  it  soon  became  a  political 
touchstone,  an  important  point  in  American  civil  policy. 

"President  Tyler,  on  the  last  day  of  his  term  of  office,  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  Texan  representatives,  by  which  Texas 
became  a  State  of  the  Union.  This  treaty  was  ratified  by 
the  American  Congress  in  March,  1845.  It  was  characterized 
by  General  Juan  N.  Almonte  (who  was  captured  at  the  San 
Jacinto  River  along  with  Santa  Anna,  and  who  was  at  this 
later  period  Mexican  Minister  at  Washington)  as  an  act  of 
aggression,  'the  most  unjust  which  can  be  found  in  the  annals 
of  modern  history.'  This  fiery  general  (who  owed  his  life  to 
the  clemency  of  the  then  President  of  the  annexed  district) 
succeeded  in  arousing  feelings  of  great  bitterness  in  Mexico. 
Diplomatic  relations  between  Texas  and  Mexico  were  sus- 
pended, General  Almonte  demanded  his  passport  and  returned 
to  Mexico,  and  General  Taylor,  the  United  States  commander 
in  the  Southwest,  received  orders  to  advance  to  the  Rio 
Grande.  The  Mexican  President  Herrera  issued  a  proclama- 
tion declaring  the  annexation  a  breach  of  international  faith, 
and  called  upon  the  citizens  of  Mexico  to  rally  to  the  defence 
of  the  territorial  integrity  of  the  country. 

"While  General  Taylor  was  approaching  the  Rio  Grande, 
troops  were  sent  north  to  enforce  the  claims  of  Mexico  to  the 
territory  in  dispute. 

"General  Taylor  reached  the  Rio  Grande  at  Matamoros 
March  26,  1846,  and  in  May  the  battles  of  Palo  Alto  (May  8) 
and  Resaca  de  la  Palma  (May  9)  were  fought,  resulting  in 
victories  for  the  Americans." 

On  May  13,  the  American  Congress  appropriated  $10,000,- 
000  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war,  and  50,000  volunteers 
were  ordered  to  be  raised.  General  Stephen  W.  Kearney  was 
sent  to  occupy  the  then  Mexican  province  of  California, 
Colonel  Doniphan  was  ordered  to  proceed  southward  toward 
Chihuahua,  and  General  Scott  to  besiege  Vera  Cruz  and 
march  to  the  capital  therefrom.  Santa  Anna,  who  had  been 
in  Cuba,  in  exile,  returned  to  Mexico  and  took  command  of 
the  Mexican  army.  This  army  was  poorly  equipped,  and 
though  the  men  fought  with  the  coolness  and  bravery  charac- 
teristic of  the  Mexican  soldier,  they  were  defeated  on  every 
hand. 

The  battle  of  Sacramento  was  fought  Feb.  28,  1847,  and  on 
March  2,  Doniphan's  command  occupied  Chihuahua.  Mean- 
while a  revolt  had  been  excited  in  California  against  Mexican 


64  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

rule,  and  formal  possession  of  the  country  was  taken  by  Com- 
modore Stockton.  On  March  9,  1847,  12,000  men,  under 
General  Scott,  were  landed  in  a  single  evening  at  Vera  Cruz, 
and  after  a  five  days'  bombardment  from  sea  and  land  the 
city  surrendered,  5,000  prisoners  and  500  pieces  of  cannon 
being  taken.  Scott  now  commenced  his  march  to  Mex.  City 
along  the  National  Road.  Approaching  the  heights  of  Cerro 
Gordo,  he  found  they  were  occupied  by  Santa  Anna  with 
15,000  men.  In  the  attack  that  ensued  the  position  wag 
forced,  3,000  prisoners  and  43  guns  being  captured.  The  Cas- 
tillo de  Perote  was  soon  taken,  and  on  May  15,  Worth's  Divi- 
sion, numbering  4,000  men,  camped  in  the  Plaza  of  Puebla. 
Scott's  army,  now  reduced  to  4,290  men,  was  obliged  to  re- 
main in  Puebla  until  August  7,  awaiting  reinforcements. 
These  came,  and  the  invading  army,  now  amounting  to 
11,000  men,  marched  through  the  Pass  of  Rio  Frio  and  on 
toward  the  capital. 

On  August  20,  the  Mexican  outposts  were  taken,  San  An- 
tonio was  captured,  the  fortified  post  of  Churubusco  was 
assaulted  and  gained,  and  the  road  leading  to  Mexico  City 
was  opened.  In  these  operations  the  American  loss  in  killed, 
wounded,  and  missing  was  1,053.  The  Mexican  loss  was  four 
times  as  great,  and  37  guns  were  taken. 

Delayed  by  an  armistice  and  by  abortive  negotiations  for 
peace,  it  was  not  until  Sept.  7  that  Scott  renewed  active  opera- 
tions for  the  possession  of  Chapultepec.  Two  formidable  out- 
works, Molino  del  Rey  and  Casa  Mata,  were  carried,  though 
with  severe  loss,  Chapultepec  (comp.  p.  381)  was  stormed  and 
captured,  and  on  Sept.  14,  1847,  the  flag  of  the  United  States 
was  hoisted  on  the  National  Palace  of  Mexico.  Scott  made 
a  triumphant  entry  into  Mexico  City  at  the  head  of  less  than 
6,000  troops. 

Meanwhile  the  battles  of  Buena  Vista  had  been  fought, 
Monterey  was  stormed  and  taken,  and  the  Northern  army  of 
Mexico  ruined.  The  capture  of  the  City  of  Mexico  was  a  de- 
cisive blow,  and  on  Feb.  2,  1848,  the  Peace  Treaty  of  Guada- 
lupe-Hidalgo  was  made. 

In  this  treaty  New  Mexico  and  Upper  California,  comprising 
522,955  square  miles  of  territory,  were  ceded  to  the  United 
States.  The  lower  Rio  Grande,  from  its  mouth  to  El  Paso, 
was  taken  as  the  boundary  of  Texas.  The  United  States  agreed 
to  pay  fifteen  millions  of  dollars  in  five  annual  instalments. 
The  claims  of  American  citizens  against  Mexico,  not  exceed- 
ing three  and  a  quarter  millions  of  dollars,  were  also  assumed. 
For  a  treaty  dictated  by  a  conquering  army,  in  the  capital 
of  the  nation  treated  with,  this  instrument  stands  unparalleled 
in  history.1 

i  The  cost  in  money  to  the  United  States  was  $166,500,000;  25,000 
men  were  killed  or  died. 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  65 

I.  Withdrawal  of  the  American  Army.  Internecine  Strife. 
Coincident  with  the  retirement  of  the  American  army  from 
Mexico,  President  Herrera  removed  his  seat  of  government 
from  Queretaro  to  the  capital,  and  the  sadly  demoralized 
country  set  about  perfecting  the  organization  for  future 
government  and  prosperity.  For  a  year  or  more  the  wise, 
economical,  tolerant,  and  progressive  Herrera  was  permitted 
to  bind  up  the  wounds  caused  by  the  war  and  to  start  the 
country  once  more  on  its  way  to  peace  and  happiness.  But 
during  this  period  the  disturbing  elements  in  the  social  econ- 
omy of  Mexico  were  only  quiescent,  in  order  that  they  might 
regain  their  wonted  strength. 

General  Mariano  Arista  was  constitutionally  elected  Presi- 
dent in  1850,  and  was  installed  in  office  in  Jan.,  1851.  It  was 
the  first  instance  in  the  history  of  the  Republic  that  a  con- 
etitutionally-elected  President  had  been  allowed  to  take  his 
seat.  He  began  by  reforming  the  army,  and  the  clergy  at  once 
took  alarm  at  his  liberalism.  In  July,  1852,  a  revolution, 
fomented  by  the  Conservatives,  broke  out  in  Guadalajara, 
spread  to  Chihuahua,  and  even  as  far  south  as  Oaxaca.  It 
took  the  name  of  the  Plan  del  Hpspicio.  Arista,  averse  to 
involving  his  country  in  another  civil  war,  and  disheartened 
at  the  course  affairs  were  taking,  resigned  the  presidency,  left 
the  country,  and  died  a  year  later,  in  poverty  and  obscurity, 
at  Lisbon.  Santa  Anna,  who  had  been  temporarily  squelched 
by  the  American  invasion,  again  came  into  prominence,  and 
on  April  15,  1853,  took  the  oath  as  President.  An  era  of  the 
most  despotic  absolutism  ensued.  The  ecclesiastical  party 
was  once  more  uppermost,  and  the  Jesuits  were  reestablished 
by  a  decree,  dated  May  1,  1853.  The  Dictator  provided  him- 
self with  ample  funds,  by  the  sale  to  the  United  States,  for 
ten  millions  of  dollars,  of  a  tract  of  land  (border  land  amount- 
ing to  45,535  square  miles),  known  as  the  Gadsden  Purchase. 
He  reestablished  the  Order  of  Guadalupe,  originally  instituted 
by  the  Emperor  Iturbide,  made  himself  the  Grand  Master 
thereof,  and  demanded  that  he  be  addressed  as  "Serene  High- 
ness." On  the  16th  of  Dec.,  1853,  he  issued  a  decree  declaring 
himself  "  Perpetual  Dictator."  A  government  was  thereby 
established  more  absolute  than  any  Mexico  had  ever  known. 
The  press  was  muzzled,  high  Liberals  were  imprisoned,  and 
the  "court"  of  the  Dictator  was  filled  with  the  most  vicious 
members  of  society.  Santa  Anna's  personal  vanity  carried 
him  to  the  extent  of  madness,  and  hastened  his  downfall. 

A  revolution,  long  brewing,  broke  out  in  Acapulco,  and  was 
called  the  Plan  de  Ayutla.  It  called  for  a  Congress  to  form 
a  new  Constitution,  by  which  a  Federal  Republican  system 
would  take  the  place  of  the  Dictatorship  established  by  Santa 
Anna.  The  leader  of  the  plan  was  General  Juan  Alvarez ,  a 
revolutionary  hero.  It  soon  attracted  the  attention  of  Ignacio 


66  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

Comonfort,  who  promptly  organized  an  army  sufficient  in 
numbers  to  assume  the  aggressive  against  the  Dictator  at  the 
capital.  Unable  to  stem  the  tide  of  popular  discontent,  Santa 
Anna  secretly  left  the  city  on  the  9th  of  Aug.,  1855,  and  went 
into  voluntary  exile.  Between  the  flight  of  Santa  Anna  and 
the  election  of  Comonfort  as  President,  Dec.  12,  there  were  two 
Presidents  and  an  incipient  revolution  at  the  capital.  The 
latter  of  these  Presidents,  Juan  Alvarez,  arrived  in  the  capital, 
with  his  body-guard  of  Indians,  in  Nov.,  and  organized  his 
government  with  Comonfort  as  his  Minister  of  War,  and  Benito 
Juarez  (comp.  p.  338)  as  Minister  of  Justice  and  Ecclesiastical 
Relations.  This  government  was  destined  to  be  of  transcen- 
dental importance  to  the  entire  future  life  of  the  Republic. 
Benito  Juarez  had  long  studied  the  welfare  of  his  country; 
with  prophetic  insight  he  had  located  the  cancerous  growth 
that  for  nearly  four  centuries  had  sapped  the  life,  energy,  and 
wealth  of  the  nation.  Quietly,  but  with  true  Indian  dogged- 
ness,  he  cut  straight  at  the  heart  of  the  evil.  One  of  the  first 
acts  of  this  new  government  of  men  rather  than  of  inflated 
puppets,  was  the  passage  (Nov.  23, 1855)  of  the  Ley  Juarez 
(not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Ley  de  Reforma),  a  law  in- 
tended to  regulate  the  administration  of  justice  and  the  organ- 
ization of  the  courts  of  law.  Its  most  significant  feature  was 
the  suppression  of  special  courts  and  the  removal  of  the  juris- 
diction, in  civil  cases,  from  military  and  ecclesiastical  powers. 
"  One  of  the  inheritances  Mexico  had  received  from  the  period 
of  Spanish  rule  was  the  exclusive  jurisdiction  claimed  by 
ecclesiastical  and  military  courts  in  all  cases,  civil  and  criminal, 
in  which  clerics  or  soldiers  were  involved.  The  evils  of  such 
a  system  are  easily  seen  when  it  is  considered  that  half  the 
crimes  committed  in  Mexico  were  by  men  amenable  only  to 
military  courts,  and  that  these  courts  were  exceedingly  lax 
in  the  administration  of  justice.  More  than  a  quarter  of  the 
landed  property  in  the  country  belonged  to  clerics ;  and  even 
the  women  who  kept  house  for  them,  and  their  servants, 
evaded  the  payment  of  just  debts  because  the  tradesmen 
could  not  enforce  their  claims  in  the  civil  courts." 

The  ecclesiastics  saw  at  once  that  the  Ley  Juarez  meant 
an  attack  on  the  sacred  rights  of  the  Church,  and  they  opposed 
it  vigorously.  This  brought  into  prominence  the  Rev.  Antonio 
Pelagio  de  Labastida  y  Ddvalos,  Bishop  of  Michoacan,  who  had 
been  but  recently  advanced  to  the  Episcopate.  He  denounced 
as  heretical  the  liberal  doctrines  promulgated,  and  threw  all 
his  influence  against  the  Government.  Despite  the  concen- 
trated opposition  of  the  Church,  Comonfort  vigorously  repressed 
both  the  army  and  the  Church ;  enforcing  his  decrees  with  the 
portion  of  the  army  that  remained  loyal  to  his  Government. 
His  next  decisive  step  in  the  direction  of  reform  was  the 
famous  Ley  Lerdo,  the  production  of  Juarez  and  Ocampo, 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  67 

though  revised  and  introduced  in  Congress  by  Miguel  Lerdo 
de  Tejada  and  passed  on  June  25,  1856.  This  law,  known 
as  El  Decreto  de  (the  decree  of)  Desamortizacion  (or  Mortmain 
Statute),  circumscribed  the  authority  of  the  Church,  and  or- 
dered the  sale,  at  its  assessed  value,  of  all  landed  estate  held 
by  it.  The  Church  was  to  receive  the  money  proceeds  of  such 
sale,  while  the  lands,  passing  into  private  hands,  and  freed 
of  mortmain,  would  become  part  of  the  mobile  and  available 
wealth  of  the  country  at  large.  Up  to  the  end  of  the  year 
1856,  the  total  value  of  property  transferred  under  this  decree, 
officially  termed  Ley  de  Desamortizacidn  Civil  y  Eclesidstica, 
was  over  twenty  millions  of  pesos. 

The  Clericals  made  strenuous  efforts  to  defeat  this  law. 
The  Bishop  of  Puebla  protested  against  the  intervention  of  the 
Government  in  matters  belonging  to  the  Church,  and  preached 
sermons  of  a  seditious  character  thereupon.  The  Archbishop 
of  Mexico  desired  to  submit  the  question  to  the  Pope  at  Rome 
—  a  proposition  which  was  at  once  indignantly  refused  by 
the  Government  of  Mexico.  A  reactionary  movement  was 
organized  in  Puebla  and  15,000  troops  were  mobilized  by  the 
Clericals. 

Comonfort  not  only  acted  with  great  promptness  and  decision 
in  suppressing  the  revolution,  but  he  issued  a  decree  punish- 
ing the  reactionary  officers  and  causing  the  sequestration  of 
enough  of  the  Church  property  in  the  Diocese  of  Puebla  to 
pay  the  expenses  of  the  war,  and  to  indemnify  the  Government 
for  all  damages  sustained  thereby.  The  Clericals  throughout 
the  land  were  stunned.  Henceforth  it  was  war  to  the  knife 
between  ignorance  and  superstition  and  progress  and  enlight- 
enment. The  war-cry  of  the  Clerical  Reactionaries  was  Re- 
ligion y  Fueros  (Religion  and  Church  Rights) .  A  conspiracy, 
fomented  by  the  monks  in  the  convent  of  San  Francisco  in 
Mexico  City,  was  discovered  Sept.  16,  1856,  and  the  next  day 
Comonfort  decreed  the  closure  of  the  convent,  and  through 
the  convent  garden  he  caused  to  be  cut  a  wide  street  which  was 
named  "  Independencia  "  (comp.  p.  322).  Another  big  section 
of  the  vast  property  of  the  San  Franciscans  was  opened  up, 
and  was  converted  into  what  is  now  the  Calle  de  Gante  (p.  320) . 
"  The  clergy  to  some  extent  defeated  the  purposes  of  the  Ley 
Lerdo  by  denouncing  all  who  would  purchase  the  lands  of 
the  Church  under  the  law,  and  declaring  that  the  'Curse  of 
God '  would  rest  upon  them  because  of  their  unholy  traffic  in 
holy  things.  By  these  threats  the  public  was  restrained  from 
purchasing  at  the  Government  sales,  and  few  bidders  were 
found  with  courage  to  risk  the  'Curse.'  Those  who  bought 
in  the  property  at  low  figures  made  fortunes  at  slight  outlay, 
albeit  they  gained  the  bitter  enmity  of  the  Church.  All  this 
served  to  make  the  task  of  the  Government  more  difficult." 
(Noll,  Empire  to  Republic.) 


68  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

A  new  Constitution,  framed  by  Congress  and  subscribed 
to  by  Comonfort,  was  adopted  Feb.  5,  much  to  the  chagrin 
of  the  Church  Party.  The  Bishops  throughout  the  country 
denounced  it,  and  certain  high  officials  in  Mexico  City  were 
excommunicated.  This  Constitution  (substantially  that  o^ 
Mexico  to-day)  was  a  direct  affront  to  the  Church.  No  sooner 
was  it  published  than  great  excitement  prevailed  in  all  parts 
of  the  country,  and  wherever  the  clergy  were  dominant, 
the  people  were  incited  to  rebellion.  An  allocution  was  re- 
ceived from  Pope  Pius  IX,  declaring  the  Government  of 
Mexico  apocrypha,  and  putting  it  under  the  anathema  of  the 
Church.  The  hitherto  stanch  Comonfort  wavered  beneath 
the  powerful  influence  brought  to  bear  upon  him,  and  ten 
days  after  he  had  sworn  to  support  the  Constitution  he  gave 
way  to  the  Clerical  Party,  set  aside  the  Constitution,  and 
tried  to  resume  government  under  the  "Bases  of  Political 
Organization"  of  1843.  To  further  placate  the  Church  Party 
he  cast  Benito  Juarez  (Minister  of  Domestic  Relations)  into 
prison.  When  too  late  he  tried  to  correct  his  mistake.  He 
released  Juarez,  restored  the  Constitution,  reorganized  the 
National  Guard,  and  took  steps  to  suppress  the  insurrection 
in  the  capital.  Failing  to  undo  what  he  had  done,  he  fore- 
saw his  own  downfall  and  left  the  country  Feb.  5,  1858. 
Immediately  upon  the  flight  of  Comonfort  the  Reactionary 
Party  proclaimed  Felix  Zuloaga  President.  The  Liberals, 
assembled  in  Quere*taro,  organized  under  the  Constitution  of 
1857,  recognized  Benito  Juarez  as  Constitutional  President, 
and  had  him  installed  on  the  10th  of  Jan.,  1858,  several  days 
before  the  election  of  Zuloaga.  Juarez  at  once  departed  for 
Guadalajara,  where  he  organized  his  government.  During 
the  troublous  times  that  followed  in  Mexico  City,  Juarez 
went  to  the  Pacific  Coast,  thence  to  the  United  States,  and 
returned  to  Vera  Cruz.  Here  he  maintained  his  government 
for  three  years.  The  Reactionaries,  who  succeeded  in  holding 
the  capital,  governed  the  country  by  a  succession  of  what 
are  now  termed  "  Anti-Presidents." 

ra.  The  War  of  the  Reform  (La  Guerra  de  la  Reforma\ 
the  culmination  of  the  long  struggle  between  the  Conserva- 
tive Clerical  Party  and  the  Liberal  and  Progressive  Fac- 
tion, lasted  from  1855  to  1861,  and  was  characterized  by  the 
cruelty  which  is  usually  a  feature  of  wars  wherein  religious 
fanatics  are  engaged.  It  was  precipitated  by  the  Ley  Juarez, 
and  though  bitterly  contested  and  prolonged  by  the  enorm- 
ous accumulated  wealth  of  the  clergy,  it  was  decisive,  for 
it  wrested  Mexico  forever  from  the  crippling  grip  of  the 
friars,  and  launched  it  on  its  present  career  of  usefulness 
and  enlightenment.  The  motto  of  the  reactionary  opposi- 
tion was  religion  y  fueros,  the  clergy  themselves  promoting 
revolution  with  the  aid  of  the  discontented  military.  The 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  69 

reactionists  plunged  into  the  fight  with  the  zeal  of  those  who 
realize  that  their  all  is  at  stake,  and  civil  war  soon  flamed 
in  many  parts  of  the  Republic.  General  Miguel  Miramon, 
one  of  the  anti-Presidents,  led  the  reactionaries,  and  was 
for  a  time  successful.  Benito  Juarez  and  his  adherents,  the 
Juaristas,  fought  their  opponents  all  over  the  country, 
and  finding  Vera  Cruz  the  best  point  from  which  to  con- 
duct his  campaign,  Juarez  established  his  government  there 
(in  1858),  and  based  his  claims  on  the  Constitution  of  1857. 
Engagements  were  hotly  contested  at  Quere*taro,  San  Luis 
Potosi,  Las  Cuevitas,  Pachuca,  Perote,  and  Ahualulco.  Prior 
to  these,  the  clergy  at  Puebla  revolted,  under  the  leadership 
of  Bishop  Haro,  and  that  town  was  the  scene  of  battles  and 
sieges.  Juarez  narrowly  escaped  execution  at  Guadalajara 
in  1857,  and  by  the  capture  of  Zacatecas,  General  Leandro 
Marquez  attained  eminence  as  a  reactionary  leader,  and  began 
a  career  of  cruelty  scarcely  paralleled  in  Mexican  history. 

Encouraged  by  his  successes,  Miramon  attempted  (Feb., 
1859)  to  capture  Vera  Cruz,  the  seat  of  the  Constitutional 
Government :  for  a  month  he  ineffectually  besieged  the  port, 
and  was  then  forced  to  hurry  to  the  capital,  which  was 
threatened  by  the  Juaristas.  A  furious  battle  was  fought 
at  Tacubaya,  and  General  Marquez,  not  content  with  victory, 
executed  a  number  of  prisoners,  among  them  six  physicians 
who  had  gone  from  the  capital  to  care  for  the  wounded 
Juaristas.  This  exploit  gained  him  the  title  of  El  Tigre 
(tiger)  de  Tacubaya,  and  for  the  town,  the  title  of  Tacubaya  de 
los  Mdr tires. 

Early  in  1860,  Miramon  returned  to  his  design  of  captur- 
ing Vera  Cruz,  and  in  March  —  after  having  borrowed 
$300,000  from  the  clergy  at  Mexico  City  —  he  appeared 
before  that  port.  In  preparing  to  besiege  the  city  he  sent  to 
Havana  and  purchased  two  steam  vessels  and  munitions  of 
war,  to  be  brought  to  V.  C.  to  cooperate  with  his  land 
forces.  The  approach  of  these  two  vessels  (the  General 
Miramon  and  the  Marques  de  la  Habana)  was  disputed  by 
the  squadrons  of  other  nations,  then  in  the  port  of  V.  C., 
and  as  they  were  unable  to  show  ship's  papers,  they  were 
regarded  as  semi-piratical.  Juarez  requested  the  United 
States  squadron  to  examine  the  papers  of  the  two  vessels, 
and  in  the  attempt  to  dp  so  the  General  Miramon  made  some 
resistance  and  a  U.  S.  frigate  was  fired  upon.  The  commander 
at  once  seized  the  ships  and  took  them  to  New  Orleans 
for  further  investigation.  The  delay  gained  by  their  deten- 
tion was  valuable  to  the  Juaristas,  resulting  in  Miramon's 
failure  in  his  attack  on  V.  C.  Later  the  siege  was  renewed 
and  the  town  was  bombarded  from  the  15th  to  the  20th  of 
March.  March  21,  the  siege  was  raised,  and  the  disgusted 
reactionists  returned  to  the  capital. 


70  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

On  July  12,  when  the  prospects  of  victory  seemed  the  most 
doubtful,  Juarez  showed  his  Indian  doggedness  and  his  belief 
in  a  just  cause  by  issuing  the  celebrated  Leyes  de  Reforma 
(Reform  Laws),  the  most  transcendental  decrees  issued  by 
a  Mexican  up  to  that  time.  They  contributed  greatly  toward 
the  ending  of  the  war.  These  laws  deprived  the  reactionaries 
of  their  resources  and  broke  the  power  of  the  party.  They 
provided  for  religious  toleration,  for  the  general  curtailment 
of  the  power  of  the  clergy  in  the  exercise  of  their  alleged 
rights,  exclaustrated  conventual  holdings,  adjusted  the  law 
of  civil  marriage,  and  secularized  the  cemeteries.  Religious 
orders  and  religious  communities  were  dissolved,  as  tyeing 
contrary  to  public  welfare.  The  nation  was  entitled  to  pos- 
sess all  the  properties  of  the  clergy,  both  religious  and  sec- 
ular, and  the  Church  was  denied  the  right  to  possess  landed 
properties.  Church  and  State  were  separated,  and  religious 
freedom  of  thought  was  established.  The  clergy  were  disal- 
lowed a  stipend  from  the  State,  and  were  thenceforth  to 
receive  such  compensation  for  their  services  as  might  be  vol- 
untarily bestowed  by  their  parishioners.  Marriage,  by  being 
considered  a  civil  contract  only,  was  freed  from  restraints 
and  expenses  previously  imposed  upon  it  by  the  clergy  — 
a  provision  far-reaching  in  its  power  for  good.  The  opera- 
tion of  the  law  converted  the  country  from  the  position  of  an 
immense  priest-ridden  camp  to  that  of  a  free  nation.1 

The  Church  did  not  submit  tamely  to  this  tremendous 
edict.  It  had  ruled  the  helpless  people  for  over  three  cen- 

1  The  wealth  of  the  Church  in  Mexico,  says  an  authority,  was  astound- 
ing. A  census  taken  15  years  previously  had  estimated  that  there  were 
2,000  nuns,  1,700  monks,  and  3,500  secular  clergy  in  Mexico,  and  that  the 
number  of  their  conventual  estates  was  150.  The  nuns  alone  possessed 
58  estates,  or  properties,  producing  an  annual  revenue  of  $560,000;  in 
addition  to  a  floating  capital  of  $4,500,000.  producing  an  annual  income 
of  $250,000.  While  the  above  number  of  clergy  was  inadequate  to  the 
spiritual  needs  of  a  population  estimated  at  seven  millions,  it  was  small 
indeed  to  be  the  possessor  of  estates  worth  at  least  $90,000,000,  which,  at 
that  time,  was  said  to  be  at  least  one  third  of  all  the  wealth  in  Mexico. 
Huge  convents  occupied  a  considerable  part  of  the  site  of  Mexico  City, 
Puebla,  Morelia,  Guadalajara,  Quere*taro,  and  other  cities.  A  portion  of 
the  income  of  the  convents  was  derived  from  endowments,  amounting  to  a 
large  sum.  To  support  the  high  ecclesiastics,  great  amounts  were  derived 
from  tithes.  The  Archbishop  of  Mexico  had  an  income  of  $130,000  a  year ; 
the  Bishop  of  Puebla,  $110,000;  of  Michoacan,  $100,000;  and  of  Guada- 
lajara, $90,000.  Mexico  City  was  more  like  a  great  religious  camp  than  a 
mercantile  centre.  The  enormous  wealth  of  the  Church  made  it  a  very 
prominent  factor  in  politics,  and  it  could  upset  and  establish  governments 
at  its  pleasure,  or  ferment  the  many  revolutions  which  were  constantly 
breaking  out.  When  the  Mexicans  rose  in  their  war  for  independence,  the 
royal  authorities  took  a  portion  of  the  Church's  wealth  —  which  had  been 
wrung  from  the  Mexicans  —  to  defeat  them  in  their  struggle. 

Mexico  City  owes  many  of  its  fine  streets  to  the  Reform  Laws,  which 
enabled  the  Government  to  demolish  churches  and  convents  and  cut 
avenues  through  their  spacious  grounds. 

There  are  said  to  be  over  ten  thousand  churches  and  chapels  at  pre- 
sent in  Mexico  which  are  subject  to  Roman  Catholic  control. 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  71 

turies,  and  it  now  stirred  up  the  national  strife  to  the  extent 
of  pitting  members  of  the  same  family  against  each  other. 
It  threw  the  religion-loving  people  into  a  panic  by  threaten- 
ing to  excommunicate  all  who  professed  Liberal  ideas.  The 
priests  so  crazed  the  populace  that  the  temporary  ambition 
of  every  Mexican  seemed  to  be  to  kill  some  one.  Nearly  two 
hundred  thousand  Mexicans  were  engaged  in  the  war,  and  the 
loss  of  life  was  appalling.  The  conflict  between  the  Liberals 
and  the  Conservatives  waged  in  nearly  every  section  of  the 
country.  The  roads  swarmed  with  bandidos,  and  the  con- 
dition of  the  country  was  deplorable. 

But  in  the  quiet,  stern,  far-seeing  Indian  from  Oaxaca  the 
Church  in  New  Spain  found  its  Waterloo.  The  task  which 
confronted  Juarez  would  have  staggered  a  less  determined 
man.  One  of  his  first  acts,  after  he  entered  the  capital, 
Jan.  11,  1861,  was  to  banish  the  Bishops  and  with  them  the 
Papal  Nuncio  and  the  Spanish  Envoy.  The  properties  left 
to  the  Church  were  confiscated,  and  former  clerical  estates 
were  let  out  to  farmers  on  payment  of  12%  of  their  values. 
Archbishop  La  Bastida,  ex-President  Miramon,  and  other 
Conservatives  went  to  Paris,  and  from  there  still  planned 
the  undoing  of  long-suffering  Mexico.  An  act  of  doubtful 
statesmanship  on  the  part  of  the  new  Congress  aided  them 
in  their  plans.  In  July,  1861,  Congress  approved  the  decree 
issued  by  the  President  suspending,  for  two  years,  all  pay- 
ments on  account  of  foreign  debts.  Juarez  was  heart  and 
soul  for  Mexico  —  the  stanch  friend  of  the  United  States, 
but  suspicious  of  Europe.  Mexico  at  this  time  owed  Great 
Britain  some  $50,000,000,  contracted  by  the  splendor-loving 
Santa  Anna  during  his  meteoric  career.  Financial  ruin  stared 
Mexico  in  the  face,  and  Juarez  meant  well  for  the  country 
when  he  suspended  interest  on  this  foreign  debt.  Two  years 
would  enable  him  to  brmg  order  out  of  chaos,  and  then  a 
progressive  Mexico  coulu  easily  meet  its  obligations.  But 
this  suspension  gave  the  ecclesiastical  malcontents  the  open- 
ing they  desired,  and  paved  the  way  for  — 

n.  The  French  Intervention,  Maximilian  and  the  Sec- 
ond Empire.  ''For  a  better  understanding  of  the  causes 
which  led  up  to  the  execution  of  this  unfortunate  Prince  of 
the  House  of  Hapsburg,  it  is  well  to  recall  that  after  the 
peace  of  Villafranca,  the  Emperor  Napoleon  III  was  sin- 
cerely desirous  to  heal  the  political  wounds  which  had  been 
made  by  his  military  operations  in  Italy,  and  to  find  some 
compensation  for  the  injuries  he  had  inflicted  on  the  Em- 
peror of  Austria. 

"From  certain  eminent  Mexicans  who  were  residing  in  Paris, 
among  them  La  Bastida,  the  ex-Archbishop  of  Mexico ;  the 
ex-President  Miramon,  Gutierrez  de  Estrada,  and  Almonte — the 
Emperor  learned  that  various  Papal  intrigues  were  under  way 


72  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

and  that  attempts  had  been  made  by  leaders  of  influence  in 
the  then  seceding  Southern  States  of  America  to  come  to 
an  understanding  with  persons  of  similar  position  in  Mexico 
with  a  view  to  a  political  union. 

"  Among  the  advantages  expected  by  the  Southern  States 
from  such  a  scheme  was  the  alluring  prospect  of  a  future  bril- 
liant empire,  encircling  the  West  India  Seas,  and  eventually 
absorbing  the  West  India  Islands.  To  the  Mexicans  there 
would  be  the  advantage  of  a  stable  and  progressive  govern- 
ment, with  an  emperor  at  its  head,  and  the  cessation  of  the 
internecine  strife  that  had  long  torn  the  country.  The  Mexi- 
can refugees  in  Paris  saw  in  the  success  of  this  scheme  an 
end  of  their  influence  in  their  native  country,  and  they  con- 
sidered it  better  for  them  to  induce  a  French  protectorate. 
The  Emperor  saw  in  this  an  opportunity  for  carrying  put 
his  friendly  intentions  toward  the  House  of  Austria.  He  im- 
mediately determined  to  encourage  the  secession  of  the  South- 
ern Confederate  States  with  the  view  of  curtailing  the  power 
of  the  North,  to  overthrow,  by  a  military  expedition,  the 
existing  Government  of  Juarez  in  Mexico,  to  establish  by 
French  arms  an  empire,  and  to  offer  its  crown  to  the  Aus- 
trian Archduke  Maximilian.1 

"  To  separate  the  Union  for  the  purpose  of  crippling  it,  but 
not  to  give  such  a  preponderance  to  the  South  as  to  enable 
it  to  consummate  its  Mexican  designs,  was  the  guiding  aim 
of  the  French  Government.  That  principle  was  satisfied  by 
the  recognition  of  belligerent  rights,  and  by  avoiding  a  recog- 
nition of  independence.  The  French  expedition  was  thus 
based  on  the  disruption  of  the  United  States  —  a  disruption 
considered  not  only  by  the  Spanish  Court  and  by  the  Em- 
peror Napoleon  as  inevitable,  but  even  by  the  British  Gov- 
ernment^ 

"  The  Spanish  Minister  in  Paris,  in  November,  1858,  had 
suggested  to  the  French  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs,  the 
advantages  that  would  accrue  from  the  establishment  of 
a  strong  government  in  Mexico.  Subsequently  the  views  of 
the  English  Government  were  ascertained,  and  in  April, 
1860,  the  Spanish  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs  stated  that 
France  and  England  were  looking  favorably  upon  the  matter. 
The  stumbling-block  in  the  way  was  the  opposition  which 
might  be  expected  from  the  United  States.  That  opposition 
was  embodied  in  a  formula  under  the  designation  of  the 
Monroe  Doctrine,  which  expressed  a  determination  not  to 
permit  the  interference  of  European  Powers  on  the  North 
American  Continent. 

"In  April,  1860,  the  project  having  advanced  sufficiently, 
Lord  John  Russell  informed  Isturitz,  the  Spanish  Minister, 

1  History  of  the  Ar, 
LL.D.  (N.Y.,  1870). 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  73 

that  England  would  require  the  protection  of  the  Protestant 
worship  in  Mexico.  The  project  was  characterized  by  the 
selfishness  which  is  usually  the  underlying  principle  of  all 
nations,  and  the  aims  of  the  three  contracting  parties  event- 
ually became  apparent.  Spain  expected  that  a  Bourbon 
prince  would  be  placed  on  the  Mexican  throne,  and  that  she 
would  thereby  recover  her  ancient  prestige  and  bind  more 
securely  to  her  the  valuable  island  of  Cuba.  Perhaps  she 
might  even  recover  Mexico  itself,  and  again  bind  that  free- 
dom-loving country  in  the  chains  of  the  ignorance  and  tyr- 
anny which  were  its  lot  during  Spanish  dominion  and  mis- 
rule. England,  remembering  the  annexation  of  Texas,  saw 
that  it  was  desirable  to  limit  the  ever-threatening  progress  of 
the  Republic  westwardly;  to  prevent  the  encircling  of  the 
West  India  Seas  by  a  power  which,  possibly  becoming  hostile, 
might  disturb  the  rich  islands  she  held ;  nor  was  she  insensible 
to  the  importance  of  partitioning  what  seemed  to  be  the 
cotton-field  of  the  world.  France  anticipated  —  but  the 
Emperor  himself,  concealing  his  real  motive  of  compensating 
Austria  for  his  Italian  victories,  has  given  us  his  ostensible 
expectations  in  a  letter  to  General  Forey. 

"In  this  letter,  dated  July  3,  1862,  Napoleon  III  says: 
'  There  will  not  be  wanting  people  who  will  ask  you  why 
we  expend  men  and  money  to  found  a  regular  government 
in  Mexico.  In  the  present  state  of  the  civilization  of  the 
world,  the  prosperity  of  America  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference 
to  Europe,  for  it  is  the  country  which  feeds  our  manufac- 
tures and  gives  an  impulse  to  our  commerce.  We  have  an 
interest  in  the  Republic  of  the  United  States  being  powerful 
and  prosperous,  but  not  that  she  should  take  possession  of 
the  whole  Gulf  of  Mexico,  thence  commanding  the  Antilles 
as  well  as  South  America,  and  be  the  only  dispenser  of  the 
products  of  the  New  World.  We  now  see  by  sad  experience 
now  precarious  is  the  lot  of  a  branch  of  manufactures  which 
is  compelled  to  produce  its  raw  material  in  a  single  market, 
all  the  vicissitudes  of  which  it  has  to  bear.  If,  on  the  con- 
trary, Mexico  maintains  her  independence  and  the  integrity 
of  her  territory,  if  a  stable  government  be  there  established 
with  the  assistance  of  France,  we  shall  have  restored  to  the 
Latin  race  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic  all  its  strength 
and  prestige ;  we  shall  have  guaranteed  security  to  our  West 
India  colonies  and  to  those  of  Spain ;  we  shall  have  estab- 
lished a  friendly  influence  in  the  centre  of  America,  and 
that  influence,  by  creating  numerous  markets  for  our  com- 
merce, will  procure  us  the  raw  materials  indispensable  for 
our  manufactures.  Mexico,  thus  regenerated,  will  always 
be  well  disposed  to  us,  not  only  out  of  gratitude,  but  because 
her  interests  will  be  in  accord  with  ours,  and  because  she 
will  find  support  in  her  friendly  relations  with  European 


74  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

Powers.  At  present,  therefore,  our  military  honor  engaged, 
the  necessities  of  our  policy,  the  interests  of  our  industry 
and  commerce,  all  conspire  to  make  it  our  duty  to  march 
on  Mexico,  boldly  to  plant  pur  flag  there,  and  to  establish 
either  a  monarchy,  if  not  incompatible  with  the  national 
feeling,  or  at  least  a  government  which  may  promise  some 
stability.' 

"  As  soon  as  it  was  ascertained  that  the  Southern  States 
were  sufficiently  powerful  to  resist  the  National  Government, 
and  that  a  partition  of  the  Union  was  impending,  the  chief 
obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  Mexican  movement  seemed  to  be 
removed.  Throughout  the  spring  and  summer  of  1861,  the 
three  contracting  powers  kept  that  result  steadfastly  in 
mind,  and  omitted  nothing  that  might  tend  to  its  accom- 
plishment. This  was  the  true  reason  of  the  concession  of 
belligerent  rights  to  the  Southern  Confederacy  in  May. 
The  downfall  of  Juarez  was  the  next  business  in  hand. 

"  Affairs  had  so  far  progressed  that,  on  November  20, 1861, 
a  convention  was  signed  in  London  between  France,  England, 
and  Spain.  In  this  it  was  agreed  that  a  joint  force  should  be 
sent  by  the  three  allies  to  Mexico ;  that  no  special  advantages 
should  be  sought  for  by  them  individually,  and  no  internal 
influence  on  Mexico  exerted.  A  commission  was  designated 
to  distribute  the  indemnity  they  proposed  to  exact.  The 
ostensible  reason  put  forth  for  the  movement  was  the  decree 
of  the  Mexican  Government,  July  17,  1861,  suspending  pay- 
ment on  the  foreign  debt. 

"  The  allied  expedition  reached  Vera  Cruz  about  the  end 
of  the  year.  Not  without  justice  did  the  Mexican  Minister 
for  Foreign  Affairs  complain  of  their  'friendly  but  inde- 
finite promises,  the  real  object  of  which  nobody  unravels/ 
Although  M.  Thouvenel  was  incessantly  assuring  the  British 
Government,  even  as  late  as  May,  1862,  that  France  had  no 
intentions  of  imposing  a  government  on  Mexico,  it  became 
obvious  that  there  was  no  more  sincerity  in  this  engagement 
than  there  had  been  in  imputing  the  grievances  of  the  invaders 
to  the  Mexican  decree  of  the  preceding  July.  The  ostensible 
cause  was  a  mere  pretext  to  get  a  military  foothold  in  the 
country.  Very  soon,  however,  it  became  impossible  for 
the  French  to  conceal  their  intentions.  England  and  Spain 
withdrew  from  the  expedition,  the  alleged  cause  on  the  part 
of  the  former  being  the  presence  of  Almonte,  and  other 
Mexican  emigrants  of  known  monarchical  opinions,  with  the 
French,  and  a  resolution  not  to  join  in  military  operations  in 
the  interior  of  the  country ;  on  the  part  of  the  latter,  the  true 
reason  was  that  not  a  Spanish  prince,  but  Maximilian,  was 
to  be  placed  on  the  Mexican  throne  —  a  disappointment 
to  the  Spanish  commander,  the  Count  de  Reuss  (General 
Prim),  who  had  pictured  for  himself  a  viceroy's  coronet. 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  75 

"  The  French  entered  the  City  of  Mexico  In  July,  1863. 
The  time  had  now  come  for  throwing  off  the  mask,  and  the 
name  of  Maximilian  was  introduced  as  a  candidate  for  the 
empire.  Commissioners  were  appointed  to  go  through  Paris 
and  Rome  to  Miramar  with  a  view  of  soliciting  the  consent 
of  that  Prince.  A  regency  was  appointed  until  he  could  be 
heard  from.  It  consisted  of  Almonte,  Salas,  and  the  Arch- 
bishop La  Bastida.  Maximilian  had  already  covenanted 
with  the  Pope  to  restore  to  the  Mexican  Church  her  mort- 
main property,  estimated  at  two  hundred  millions  of  dollars. 
In  Mexico  there  were  but  two  parties,  the  Liberal  and  the 
Ecclesiastical.  The  latter  was  conciliated  by  that  covenant : 
but  as  to  the  national  sentiment,  the  collection  of  suffrages 
in  behalf  of  the  new  empire  was  nothing  better  than  a  mere 
farce. 

"  An  empire  was  established  in  Mexico.  Well  might  the 
leaders  of  the  Southern  Confederacy  be  thunderstruck!  Was 
this  the  fulfilment  of  that  promise  which  had  lured  them  into 
the  gulf  of  revolt  —  the  promise  which  had  been  used  with  such 
fatal  effect  in  Charleston?  Well  might  it  be  expected  in 
France,  as  is  stated  by  Keratry,  that  '  the  Confederates  pro- 
posed to  avenge  themselves  for  the  overthrow  of  the  secret 
hopes  which  had  been  encouraged  from  the  very  outset  of  the 
contest  by  the  cabinet  of  the  Tuileries,  which  had  accorded 
to  them  the  belligerent  character,  and  had,  after  all,  aban- 
doned them/ 

"Yet  no  one  in  America,  either  of  the  Northern  or  the 
Southern  States,  imputed  blame  to  the  French  people  in  these 
bloody  and  dark  transactions.  All  saw  clearly  on  whom  the 
responsibility  rested.  And  when,  in  the  course  of  events,  it 
seemed  to  become  necessary  that  the  French  army  should 
leave  Mexico,  it  was  the  general  desire  that  nothing  should  be 
done  which  might  by  any  possibility  touch  the  sensibilities 
of  France.  But  the  Republic  of  the  West  was  forever  alienated 
from  the  dynasty  of  Napoleon. 

"  Events  showed  that  the  persons  who  were  charged  with  the 
administration  of  the  Richmond  Government  had  not  ability 
equal  to  their  task.  The  South  did  not  select  her  best  men. 
In  the  unskilful  hands  of  those  who  had  charge  of  it,  secession 
proved  to  be  a  failure.  The  Confederate  resources  were  reck- 
lessly squandered,  not  skilfully  used.  Ruin  was  provoked. 

"  When  it  became  plain  that  the  American  Republic  was 
about  to  triumph  over  its  domestic  enemies  in  the  Civil  War, 
and  that  it  was  in  possession  of  irresistible  military  power, 
they  who  in  the  Tuileries  had  plotted  the  rise  of  Maximilian  in 
1861,  now  plotted  his  ruin.  The  betrayed  emperor  found  that 
in  that  palace  two  languages  were  spoken.  In  the  agony  of 
his  soul  he  exclaimed,  '  I  am  tricked ! '  In  vain  his  princess 
crossed  the  Atlantic,  and  though  denied  access,  forced  her 


76  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

way  into  the  presence  of  Napoleon  III,  in  her  frantic  grief 
upbraiding  herself  before  him  that,  in  accepting  a  throne 
from  his  hand,  she  had  forgotten  that  she  was  a  daughter  of 
the  race  of  Orleans l  —  in  vain  she  fell  at  the  feet  of  the  Pope 
deliriously  imploring  his  succor. 

"  The  American  Secretary  of  State,  Mr.  Seward,  adopted  a 
firm  but  dignified  course  with  the  French  Government*  With 
a  courteous  audacity,  he  did  not  withhold  his  doubts  as  to 
the  sincerity  and  fidelity, of  the  Emperor;  with  inexorable 
persistence  he  demanded  categorically  that  the  French  occu- 
pation should  come  to  an  end.  A  date  once  set,  he  held  the 
French  Government  to  its  word.  'Tell  M.  Moustier,'  he  says, 
in  a  despatch  to  the  American  Minister  in  Paris,  'that  our 
Government  is  astonished  and  distressed  at  the  announce- 
ment, now  made  for  the  first  time,  that  the  promised  with- 
drawal of  French  troops  from  Mexico,  which  ought  to  have 
taken  place  in  November  (this  month),  has  been  put  off  by 
the  Emperor.  You  will  inform  the  Emperor's  Government 
that  the  President  desires  and  sincerely  hopes  that  the  evac- 
uation of  Mexico  will  be  accomplished  in  conformity  with 
the  existing  arrangement,  so  far  as  the  inopportune  complica- 
tion necessitating  this  despatch  will  permit.  On  this  point 
Mr.  Campbell  will  receive  instructions.  Instructions  will  also  be 
sent  to  the  military  forces  of  the  United  States,  which  are 
placed  in  a  spot  of  observation,  and  are  waiting  the  special 
orders  of  the  President:  and  this  will  be  done  with  the  con- 
fidence that  the  telegraph  or  the  courier  will  bring  us  intelli- 
gence of  a  satisfactory  resolution  on  the  part  of  the  Emperor 
in  reply  to  this  note.  You  will  assure  the  French  Government 
that  the  United  States,  in  wishing  to  free  Mexico,  have  no- 
thing so  much  at  heart  as  preserving  peace  and  friendship 
with  France.' 

"  The  French  recognized  that  the  position  of  the  two  nations 
had  become  inverted.  The  United  States  now  gave  orders. 
Even  by  the  French  themselves  it  was  said,  'The  United 
States  tracked  French  policy  step  by  step;  never  had  the 
French  Government  been  subject  to  such  a  tyrannical  dic- 
tation. Formerly  France  had  spoken  boldly,  saying,  through 
M.  Drooyn  de  Lhuy  to  Mr.  Dayton,  the  American  representa- 
tive at  Paris,  "  Do  you  bring  us  peace  or  war  ?  "  Now  Maxi- 
milian is  falling  in  obedience  to  orders  from  Washington.  He 
is  falling  a  victim  to  the  weakness  of  our  Government  in  al- 
lowing its  conduct  to  be  dictated  by  American  arrogance. 
Indeed,  before  rushing  into  such  perilous  contingencies,  might 
not  the  attitude  of  the  United  States  have  been  easily  fore- 
seen? Our  statesmen  needed  no  rare  perspicuity  to  have  dis- 

1  Marie  Carlota  Amelie  (born  near  Brussels  June  7,  1840)  was  the 
daughter  of  Leopold  I,  King  of  Belgium.  She  married  Maximilian  June 
27,  1857. 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  77 

covered  the  dark  shadow  of  the  Northern  Republic  looming 
up  on  the  horizon  over  the  Rio  Bravo  frontier,  and  only  biding 
its  time  to  make  its  appearance  on  the  scene/ 

"  Only  one  thing  was  now  thought  of  in  Paris,  and  that 
was  to  leave  as  soon  as  possible  this  land  of  destroyed  illu- 
sions and  bitter  sacrifices.  Was  there  ever  such  a  catalogue 
of  disappointed  expectations  as  is  presented  in  this  Mexican 
tragedy?  The  Southern  secession  leaders  engaged  in  dreaming 
of  a  tropical  empire  which  they  never  realized:  they  hoped  it 
would  bring  a  recognition  of  their  independence,  and  they 
were  betrayed.  The  English  were  beguiled  into  it  as  a  means 
of  checking  the  growth  of  a  commercial  rival,  and  of  protect- 
ing their  West  Indian  possessions.  They  were  duped  into  the 
belief  that  there  was  no  purpose  of  interfering  with  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Mexico.  They  consented  to  the  perilous  measures 
of  admitting  the  belligerent  rights  of  the  South.  They  lent 
what  aid  they  could  to  the  partition  of  a  nation  with  which 
they  were  at  peace.  They  found  that  the  secret  intention  was 
the  establishment  of  an  empire  in  the  interests  of  France,  the 
conciliation  of  Austria  for  military  reverses  in  Italy,  and  the 
curbing  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  by  the  Latin  race.  England  ex- 
pected to  destroy  a  democracy,  and  has  gathered  her  reward  by 
becoming  more  democratic  herself.  The  Pope  gave  his  coun- 
tenance to  the  plot,  having  received  a  promise  of  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  Mexican  Church  to  her  pristine  splendor,  and  the 
restoration  of  her  mortmain  estates ;  but  the  Archbishop  La 
Bastida,  who  was  one  of  the  three  regents  representing  her 
great  influence,  was  insulted  and  removed  from  his  political 
office  by  the  French.  In  impotent  retaliation,  he  discharged 
at  his  assailants  the  rusty  ecclesiastical  blunderbuss  of  past 
days  —  he  excommunicated  the  French  army.  The  Span- 
iards did  not  regain  their  former  colony;  the  brow  of  the 
Count  de  Reuss  was  never  adorned  with  a  vice-regal  coro- 
net. The  noble  and  devoted  wife  of  Maximilian  was  made  a 
wanderer  in  the  sight  of  all  Europe,  her  diadem  removed,  her 
reason  dethroned. 

"  For  Maximilian  himself  there  was  not  reserved  the  pagean- 
try of  an  imperial  court  in  the  Indian  palaces  of  Mpntezuma, 
but  the  death-volley  of  a  grim  file  of  Mexican  soldiers,  under 
the  frowning  shadow  of  the  heights  of  Quere"taro.  For  the 
Emperor  of  Austria,  there  was  not  the  homage  of  a  transat- 
lantic crown ;  Mexico  sent  him  across  the  ocean,  a  coffin  and 
a  corpse.  For  France,  ever  great  and  just,  in  whose  name 
so  many  crimes  were  perpetrated,  but  who  is  responsible 
for  none  of  them,  there  was  a  loss  of  that  which  in  her  eyes 
is  of  infinitely  more  value  than  the  six  hundred  millions  of 
francs  which  were  cast  into  this  Mexican  abyss.  For  the 
Emperor  —  can  anything  be  more  terrible  than  the  despatch 
which  was  sent  to  America  at  the  close  of  the  great  Exposi- 


78  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

tion?  — '  There  remain  now  no  sovereigns  in  Paris  except  the 
Emperor  Napoleon  III  and  the  spectre  of  Maximilian  at  his 
elbow.' " 

Toward  the  close  of  December  the  Spanish  squadron  cast 
anchor  in  the  harbor  of  Vera  Cruz.  Early  in  January,  1862, 
English  and  French  war-ships  arrived.  They  jointly  took 
possession  of  the  port,  and  sent  a  note  to  the  Mexican  Gov- 
ernment explaining  the  ostensible  causes  and  aims  of  the 
expedition.  The  Government  invited  them  to  a  conference 
having  for  its  aim  the  reaching  of  an  amicable  settlement. 
This  conference  was  held  in  Orizaba.  As  the  Mexican  Govern- 
ment was  unprepared  for  war  with  a  foreign  power,  it  was 
agreed  that  the  allies  should  hold  Cordoba,  Orizaba,  and 
Tehuacan  pending  a  satisfactory  adjustment.  If  an  agree- 
ment were  not  reached,  the  allies  were^to  retire  to  the  coast 
before  beginning  hostilities. 

While  negotiations  were  in  progress,  the  commissioners  of 
the  English  and  Spanish  Governments  (April  9)  announced 
their  intention  to  withdraw  and  reembark  their  troops.  This 
was  done  as  speedily  as  possible.  The  French  commissioner 
declared  it  was  the  intention  of  his  government  to  push  the 
enterprise  to  completion. 

Violating  their  agreement  to  retire  to  the  coast,  they  awaited 
reinforcements,  which  arrived  under  the  command  of  Gen- 
eral Lorencez.  At  the  head  of  six  thousand  men  he  marched 
toward  the  capital.  He  appeared  before  Puebla  May  4,  and 
on  May  5,  began  the  assault  of  the  city.  He  was  defeated 
by  General  Zaragoza  at  the  head  of  4,000  Mexican  troops. 

The  French  again  attacked  Puebla,  which  was  heroically 
defended  by  Gonzales  Ortega  with  12,000  men,  aided  by  Gen- 
eral Comonfort  with  a  strong  outlying  division.  On  May  8, 
Bazaine  routed  Comonfort,  and  on  the  17th  Puebla  capitu- 
lated to  vastly  superior  forces.  The  French  continued  their 
march  to  the  capital.  President  Juarez,  after  issuing  a  mani- 
festo to  the  nation,  exhorting  them  to  continue  the  struggle, 
abandoned  the  city  May  31.  He  retired  toward  the  north,  ac- 
companied by  troops  under  Generals  Don  Porfirio  Diaz  and 
Don  Juan  Jose  de  la  Garza. 

On  June  11,  Mexico  City  was  officially  occupied  by  the 
French  troops.  The  Conservative  Party  accorded  General 
Forey  an  enthusiastic  reception.  A  junta  composed  of  35 
members  of  the  Conservative  Party  was  formed,  and  they  in 
turn  created  another  junta  with  the  title  of  Regencia  and 
headed  by  Don  Juan  Almonte,  one  of  the  most  active  agents 
in  the  establishment  of  the  monarchy  in  Mexico. 

On  June  10,  1863,  a  junta  convoked  by  General  Forey  and 
composed  of  200  adherents  of  the  Conservative  Party  form- 
ally declared :  — 

"  The  Nation  accepts  an  hereditary  monarchy  headed  by  a 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  79 

Catholic  prince  who  will  bear  the  title  of  Emperor.  It  offers 
the  crown  to  Archduke  Fernando  Maximilian  of  Austria." 

Meanwhile  Juarez  had  established  his  temporary  govern- 
ment in  San  Luis  Potosf,  whence,  on  June  10,  it  moved  to 
Saltillo.  Later  it  moved  to  Chihuahua,  and  thence  to  Paso 
del  Norte,  now  Ciudad  Juarez. 

Maximilian  accepted  the  crown  of  the  new  empire  in  con- 
sideration of  three  million  pesos  advanced  by  Napoleon  III 
to  enable  him  to  pay  some  of  his  debts.  The  compact  was 
signed  at  the  Chateau  of  Miramar,  April  10, 1864.  From  that 
date  his  allowance  was  $125,000  a  month:  that  of  Carlota 
$16,666.66,  making  a  sum  total  of  $1,700,000  annually  paid 
by  impoverished  Mexico  for  the  privilege  of  having  its  dis- 
tracted country  mismanaged  by  a  foreign  potentate. 

The  Archduke  and  his  consort  embarked  on  the  Austrian 
war-ship  La  Novara,  April  14,  1864.  Arriving  at  Civita- 
Vecchia  they  went  direct  to  Rome,  where  they  lodged  at  the 
Palacio  Marescotta.  After  a  visit  from  the  King  of  Naples 
and  Cardinal  Antonelli,  they  attended  a  special  mass  at  the 
Vatican,  received  the  communion  from  the  hands  of  the  Pope, 
and  sailed  for  Mexico  April  20. 

On  May  28,  La  Novara  dropped  anchor  in  the  harbor  of 
Vera  Cruz.  The  next  morning  Maximilian  and  his  suite  dis- 
embarked and  received  the  keys  of  the  city.  Gayly  decorated 
carriages  conveyed  them  up  the  mountains  to  Cordoba  and 
Orizaba,  where  they  were  received  with  flowers  and  acclama- 
tions. They  arrived  at  Puebla  June  5,  where  a  great  celebra- 
tion was  held  (the  7th)  in  honor  of  Carlota's  birthday.  They 
passed  the  night  of  the  llth  at  Guadalupe,  and  made  their 
triumphal  entry  into  the  capital  on  the  morning  of  June  12.1 

Coincident  with  the  arrival  of  Maximilian,  the  monarchical 
form  of  government  began  its  functions.  Troubles  also  arose. 
The  Archduke  was  not  lacking  in  advanced  ideas,  and  from 
the  first  he  essayed  to  win  the  good  will  of  the  Liberals, 
a  difficult  task  in  view  of  their  intense  hostility  to  the  Con- 
servatives whom  the  Emperor  represented.  In  turn  he  gained 
the  ill  will  of  the  Conservatives  by  refusing  to  annul  or  modify 
the  Leyes  de  Reforma. 

Money  was  the  shibboleth  of  his  brief  reign.  The  extra- 
vagant etiquette  of  the  Austrian  Court  was  implanted  in  the 
Aztec  capital,  and  it  became  the  theatre  of  glittering  court 

i  In  view  of  the  fact  that  one  of  the  ostensible  causes  of  the  French  in- 
tervention was  the  decree  repudiating  Mexico's  foreign  debts  (because  of 
her  inability  to  pay  them),  it  is  interesting  to  note  the  minor  expendi- 
tures consequent  to  bringing  Maximilian  and  his  suite  to  Mexico. 
Given  to  various  persons  to  induce  the  Emperor  to  come  .  $104,902.32 
Furniture  and  improvements  in  the  Palace  at  Mexico  .  .  101,011.83 
Furniture  and  art  objects  for  Chapultepec  and  Orizaba  .  .  15,210.50 

Reception  at  Vera  Cruz  and  Mexico  City 115,348.41 

Total    .     .  $336,473.06 


80  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

balls,  regal  receptions,  and  splendid  social  functions.  To  meet 
the  ever-increasing  expenses  of  the  lavish  court,  loans  were 
contracted  in  Paris  and  London,  and  valuable  franchises  were 
sold  to  the  foreign  adventurers  who  flocked  to  the  seat  of  the 
new  empire. 

In  marked  contrast  to  affairs  at  the  capital,  turmoil  reigned 
in  the  interior  cities  and  towns.  In  those  garrisoned  by  a 
sufficient  number  of  French  troops,  an  illusory  peace  was 
maintained  by  force  of  arms.  A  perpetual  guerrilla  warfare 
was  waged  in  many  of  the  country  districts.  At  first  the 
Mexicans  suffered  heavily  at  the  hands  of  the  French,  but 
the  revolutionists  gained  strength,  and  in  1866  disquieting 
rumors  reached  the  capital  and  disturbed  the  Emperor  in 
his  fancied  security. 

With  a  woman's  perspicacity,  the  Empress  detected  the  trend 
of  events  and  she  proposed  a  trip  to  Paris  and  Rome,  with  the 
aim  of  urging  Napoleon  III  to  fulfil  the  promises  made  at 
Miramar,  and  to  invite  the  aid  of  the  Pope  to  unravel  the 
ecclesiastical  tangle  which  perplexed  the  struggling  monarchy. 

On  July  6  a  special  Te  Deum  was  held  in  the  Cathedral,  and  on 
the  13th  the  Empress  embarked  at  Vera  Cruz  on  the  Empera- 
triz  Eugenia.  When  she  left  Mexico  she  turned  her  back  upon 
her  husband  and  an  imperial  diadem,  both  forever  lost  to  her. 

Napoleon  received  the  Empress  coldly.  Both  indulged  in 
violent  and  acrimonious  recrimination ;  the  Emperor  refus- 
ing absolutely  to  furnish  further  resources,  whether  military 
or  pecuniary.  The  interview  served  only  to  strain  the  already 
tenuous  relations  between  Napoleon  and  Maximilian.  The 
vainglorious  French  Emperor  had  his  own  troubles.  Spurred 
and  vexed  by  the  veiled  orders  of  the  United  States  to  with- 
draw his  troops  from  American  soil,  he  sought  but  the  means 
to  comply  and  preserve  his  dignity.  The  soldiers  themselves 
were  constantly  harassed  by  the  Mexican  guerrillas,  and  they 
yearned  for  La  Belle  France  and  for  the  cessation  of  a  boot- 
less struggle  on  alien  soil. 

A  victim  to  the  darkest  forebodings,  the  unhappy  Empress 
repaired  to  Miramar,  where,  on  the  16th  of  Sept.,  a  banquet 
celebrating  the  Independence  of  Mexico  was  given.  Unwill- 
ing to  relinquish  the  Mexican  crown  and  again  be  merely 
an  Archduchess  of  Austria,  the  ambitious  woman  started  for 
Rome  with  all  her  hopes  centred  in  the  Pope.  She  made 
her  official  visit  to  the  Vatican  on  September  27.  On  being 
received  by  the  Pontiff  she  fell  into  a  nervous  paroxysm,  and 
as  if  possessed  of  an  awful  terror  she  exclaimed:  "I  have 
been  poisoned  by  order  of  Napoleon  III,  and  those  without 
have  accomplished  it."1  Hppe^had  died  out  of  her  proud 
heart  and  her  reason  went  with  it. 

1  There  are  Mexicans  who  say  the  Empress  was  secretly  poisoned  with 
Marihuana  (a  deadly  native  drug)  before  she  departed  from  Mexico 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  81 

The  sad  notice  all  but  crushed  Maximilian,  and  his  sole 
remaining  ambition  was  to  leave  Mexico  and  reach  the  side 
of  his  unfortunate  wife.  Prevailed  upon  by  the  Conservative 
Party  to  remain,  he  did  so,  and  unwittingly  sealed  his  own  fate. 

The  year  1867  opened  menacingly  for  the  empire.  The 
Liberal  forces  in  the  north  had  captured  town  after  town. 
Napoleon  had  named  early  spring  as  the  date  for  the  with- 
drawal of  his  troops,  but  the  urgency  of  Mr.  Seward  and  the 
interview  with  the  Empress  Carlota  hastened  his  plans, 
and  the  last  of  the  French  troops  reached  Mexico  City  Jan. 
15,  homeward  bound.  On  Feb.  5,  the  French  flag  was  hauled 
down  from  over  the  home  of  the  Marshal,  in  Buena  Vista 
(p.  340),  and  the  army  filed  out  of  the  city.  From  behind  the. 
curtained  window  of  the  palace,  Maximilian  watched  its  de- 
parture in  silence. 

Hard-pushed  by  the  Liberals,  the  generals  of  the  Imperial- 
ist cause  had  united  in  Quere"taro.  Accompanied  by  his 
Ministers  of  State,  aides,  doctor,  secretary,  and  two  thousand 
armed  men  under  General  Leonardo  Marquez,  Maximilian 
left  the  capital  Feb.  13.  A  special  Te  Deum  was  sung  in  the 
Cathedral  at  Quere"taro  the  day  of  his  arrival.  On  the  same 
day  General  Mendez  arrived  on  his  retreat  from  Morelia. 
On  March  20,  Queretaro  was  closely  besieged  by  the  Liberal 
forces. 

When  the  Emperor  left  Mexico  City,  he  believed  he  was  to 
lead  a  campaign  against  the  enemy.  Great  was  his  surprise 
to  learn  that  he  had  deliberately  entered  a  beleaguered  city, 
now  completely  surrounded  by  Liberal  troops  under  Generals 
Escobedo  and  Corona.  Once  trapped,  his  position  was  peril- 
ous. Numerous  but  ineffectual  attempts  were  made  to  break 
the  cordon.  Ammunition  grew  scarce,  rations  diminished,  and 
the  city  was  taken  by  the  Republican  forces  May  15.  Max- 
imilian, Miramon,  and  Mejiawere  imprisoned  in  a  cell  in  the 
existing  Capuchin  Convent.  The  court-martial  that  tried 
them  was  convened  in  the  Yturbide  Theatre  at  10  A.  M.,  June 
14.  The  Emperor  was  suffering  from  an  acute  attack  of  illness 
and  was  not  present.  On  June  15,  the  court  united  in  a  sen- 
tence of  death. 


When  she  made  her  piteous  appeal  for  help  to  Napoleon  III,  she  was 
quite  sane,  though  sadly  wrought  up  by  intense  emotion,  but  failure  un- 
hinged her  mind,  and  when  she  hurried  off  to  the  Pope,  she  was  demented. 
To  the  horror  of  the  Papal  Court,  she  burst  into  the  presence  of  His  Holi- 
ness wearing  a  bonnet  instead  of  the  black  mantilla  rigorously  insisted 
upon  in  such  an  audience;  and  to  the  still  greater  horror  of  Cardinal 
Antonelli  and  of  the  Pope  himself,  she  insisted  on  staying  overnight  at 
the  Vatican.  As,  however,  force  could  not  be  used  to  eject  her,  the  Pope 
had  to  order  two  beds  to  be  placed  in  the  library  for  the  Empress  and  one 
of  her  ladies  —  an  unheard-of  desecration!  Indeed,  they  could  get  rid  of 
the  hapless  Empress  next  day  only  by  the  ruse  of  getting  two  nuns  to 
persuade  her  to  visit  their  convent,  where  she  became  so  violent  that  she 
had  to  be  put  into  a  strait-jacket  I 


82  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

The  President  of  the  United  States  and  the  sovereigns  of 
Great  Britain,  France,  and  Austria  tried  to  save  his  life. 
Victor  Hugo  wrote  Juarez  a  strong  and  stirring  appeal,  and 
besought  him  to  pardon  Maximilian.  The  Princess  Salm- 
Salm  rode  120  miles  across  country,  and  on  her  knees  im- 
plored Juarez  to  spare  his  life.  He  refused  to  annul  the  order. 
In  connection  with  the  Austrian,  Belgian,  and  Italian  Ministers 
and  the  French  Consul,  she  planned  a  nocturnal  flight  from 
the  convent.  This  plan  failed.  Maximilian's  counsel  went  to 
President  Juarez  at  San  Luis  Potosi  and  urged  a  commuta- 
tion of  the  sentence.  But  as  Maximilian  himself  had,  in  his 
famous  decree  of  October  3,  condemned  to  death  any  Mexi- 
can found  with  arms  against  the  monarchy,  Juarez  refused 
the  plea.  He  confirmed  by  telegraph,  at  11  A.  M.,  on  June  16, 
the  death  sentence  pronounced  against  Fernando  Maximilian 
of  Hapsburg.  The  jailer  immediately  announced  the  news  to 
the  prisoners. 

Shortly  after  daylight  on  the  morning  of  June  19,  1867, 
a  division  composed  of  4,000  men  marched  to  the  suburb  of 
Quere*taro  and  formed  a  square  at  the  foot  of  El  Cerro  de 
las  Campanas  —  The  Hill  of  the  Bells.  In  their  cells  in  the 
Capuchin  Convent  three  men  dressed  for  the  ordeal. 

They  had  scarcely  finished  when  a  soldier  opened  the 
heavy  door  and  said :  /  Ya  es  hora ! — the  time  has  come.  Maxi- 
milian, Miramon,  and  Mejia,  accompanied  by  a  Catholic  priest, 
Father  Soria,  stepped  into  the  carriage  awaiting  them  and 
were  quickly  driven  through  a  silent  multitude  to  the  place  of 
execution.  The  carriage  reached  El  Cerro  de  las  Campanas 
at  7.15.  Maximilian  descended  first  and  was  followed  by  his 
generals,  who  walked  with  firm  steps.  About  halfway  up  the 
hill  was  an  adobe  wall,  constructed  during  the  siege  as  a  breast- 
work, guarding  the  more  important  fortification  upon  the 
summit  —  the  last  point  to  surrender  and  where  Maximilian 
was  captured.  In  front  of  this  wall  the  prisoners  were  stationed 
and  the  firing-parties  told  off.  The  men  embraced  each  other, 
and  took  a  last  look  at  the  winsome  blue  sky  of  a  faultless  day. 

Maximilian  distributed  some  gold  coins  among  the  soldiers 
who  were  to  shoot  him,  and  in  a  clear,  vibrant  voice  exclaimed : 
"  I  die  in  a  just  cause,  the  Independence  and  Liberty  of  Mexico. 
I  forgive  all,  and  I  pray  that  all  may  forgive  me.  May  my 
blood  flow  for  the  good  of  my  adopted  country.  /  Viva  Mexi- 
co!" Miramon  uttered  a  few  words.  Mejia  remained  silent. 
It  is  said  that  Mejia  comforted  Maximilian  in  his  last  hours 
by  assuring  him  that  Carlota  had  died  in  Europe.  Maxi- 
milian asked  as  a  favor  that  he  might  be  shot  in  the  body,  so 
that  when  his  body  was  sent  to  Austria  his  mother  might  once 
more  look  upon  his  face. 

Maximilian,  Miramon,  and  Mejia  fell  dead  at  the  first 
volley.  A  second  fire  was  directed  against  the  body  of  the 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  83 

Emperor.  It  was  then  placed  in  a  rude  coffin  and  taken  to  a 
room  in  the  Palacio  de  Gobierno.  The  body  was  there  in- 
spected by  President  Juarez.1 

o.  The  Restored  Republic.  When  Juarez  again  entered 
the  capital  on  July  15,  1867,  after  an  absence  of  five  years, 
his  return  signalized  the  rise  of  the  new  Republic  and  the 
culmination  of  his  own  fame.  The  Constitution  of  1857  was 
made  once  more  effective,  and  the  national  energies  were 
directed  toward  repairing  the  waste  caused  by  the  long  war. 
Railways  and  telegraphs  were  installed,  and  the  country  was 
developed  internally. 

Congress  reflected  Juarez  president  in  Oct.,  1871,  and  he 
took  the  oath  as  a  constitutional  president  for  the  third  time 
on  Dec.  1.  A  number  of  would-be  presidents  "pronounced" 
against  him,  but  each  attempt  to  return  to  the  old  method 
of  governing  the  country  by  force  was  promptly  squelched. 

The  sudden  death  of  Juarez  on  July  18,  1872,  raised  Sebas- 
tian Lerdo  de  Tejada  (then  president  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  Justice)  to  the  presidency.  During  his  three  years'  tenure 
of  office  several  articles  were  added  to  the  Constitution; 
one  in  particular  suppressing  the  last  remaining  religious 
order  —  the  Sisters  of  Charity.  The  government  under 
Tejada  was  unpopular  with  the  people,  and  a  remedy  was  pro- 
vided in  the  revolt  headed  by  General  Porfirio  Diaz  in  1876. 
The  new  revolution,  which  soon  plunged  the  entire  country 
into  another  civil  war,  had  for  its  base  the  Plan  de  Tux- 
tepee,  promulgated  in  Oaxaca,  Jan.  15.  It  was  the  most  signi- 
ficant of  all  the  revolutions  to  date,  since  it  gave  Mexico 
its  greatest  ruler.  Under  the  command  of  General  Diaz  the 
revolutionary  army  carried  out  an  energetic  and  successful 
campaign.  Tejada  fled  to  the  United  States,  and  General 

1  The  body  of  the  unfortunate  Emperor  now  lies  in  the  Austrian  Im- 
perial vault  in  the  Capuchin  Church  at  Vienna.  The  Prince  was  a  rear- 
admiral  in  the  Austrian  Navy,  and  before  his  ill-starred  expedition  to 
Mexico,  where  he  was  sacrificed  to  the  perfidy  of  Napoleon  III,  he  resided 
in  Trieste  in  a  beautiful  chateau  called  Miramar.  In  the  Piazza  Giuseppe, 
in  Trieste,  stands  a  fine  bronze  monument  (by  Schilling),  erected  in  1875 
to  his  memory.  Miramon  and  Mejia  are  buried  in  the  Pantedn  de  San 
Fernando  (Mexico  City).  There  are  good  paintings  of  Maximilian  and  the 
Empress  Carlota  in  the  National  Museum  at  Mex.  City. 

The  student  should  consult  History  of  Mexico,  by  Hubert  Howe  Ban- 
croft (San  Francisco,  1888),  vol.  vi,  pp.  318  et  seq.  —  My  Diary  in  Mexico 
in  1 867,  including  the  Last  Days  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  with  Leaves 
from  the  Diary  of  the  Princess  Salm-Salm,  by  Felix  Salm-Salm,  Lon- 
don, 1868.  —  Life  of  Maximilian  I,  Late  Emperor  of  Mexico,  with  a  sketch  of 
the  Empress  Carlota,  by  Frederic  Hall,  New  York,  1868.  —Mejico  desde 
1808  hasta  1867,  by  Francisco  de  P.  Arrange iz,  Mexico,  1872  (a  good 
historical  picture  of  the  Second  Empire).  —  Resena  Histdrica  de  la  For- 
macidn  y  Operaciones  del  Cuerpo  de  Ejercito  del  Norte  durante  la  Inter- 
vention Francesa,  Sitio  de  Querctaro  y  Noticias  Oftciales  sobre  la  captura 
de  Maximillano,  su  Proceso  Integro  y  su  Muerte,  by  Juan  de  Dios  Arias, 
Mexico,  1 867.  —  Guerre  du  Mexique,18Ql-18Q7,  by  L.  Le  Saint,  Paris, 
1868.  —  Erinnerungen  aus  Mexico,  Geschichte  der  letzten  zehn  Monate  dea 
Kaiserreisch,  by  S.  Basch,  Leipsic,  1 868. 


84  HISTORY  AND  RACES 

Diaz  entered  Mexico  City  Nov.  24,  1876,  and  was  proclaimed 
Provisional  President.  The  following  April,  Congress  form- 
ally decreed  that  he  be  Constitutional  President  for  a  term 
ending  in  Nov.,  1880.  A  strong  man  was  now  at  the  head  of  the 
government.  Diplomatic  relations  with  France  were  resumed ; 
railway  construction  was  pushed;  incipient  revolutions  were 
killed  in  their  cradle,  and  the  nation  was  led  gently  but  firmly 
into  the  path  of  peace  and  progress. 

In  1880,  the  term  for  which  Diaz  had  been  elected  expired, 
and  albeit  many  of  his  great  plans  for  the  regeneration  of  the 
country  were  still  in  embryo,  he  steadfastly  adhered  to  his 
purpose  of  abiding  by  the  constitutional  provision  that  ren- 
dered him  ineligible  for  a  succeeding  term.  The  moral  worth 
of  the  man  had  perhaps  never  been  subjected  to  a  severer  test. 

On  Sept.  25,  1880,  General  Don  Manuel  Gonzalez  was 
legally  elected  the  successor  of  the  retiring  president.  The 
high  principles  of  Diaz  were  beyond  the  grasp  of  the  new 
president,  whose  reign  was  characterized  by  riots,  and  similar 
manifestations  of  the  popular  discontent.  In  1883,  the  "  nickel 
riots  "  came  near  to  ending  the  Gonzalez  administration,  as 
did  likewise  the  proposal  of  a  very  unpopular  plan  for  liqui- 
dating Mexico's  English  debt.  The  admirable  administration 
of  Porfirio  Diaz  had  elevated  the  nation  to  a  higher  moral 
plane  than  it  had  occupied  hitherto;  the  dormant  national 
conscience  had  been  awakened,  and  the  Mexicans,  for  the 
first  time  in  many  years,  had  acquired  an  interest  in  their 
reputation  at  home  and  abroad.  A  new  element  had  been 
introduced  into  national  affairs.  So  deep  and  so  lasting  was 
the  impression  made  by  this  greatest  Mexican  that  the  people 
refrained  from  ousting  Gonzalez:  biding  their  time,  they 
shelved  their  grievances,  and  patiently  waited  until  events 
should  once  more  place  Diaz  at  the  head  of  the  nation. 

This  occurred  in  1884,  when  General  Diaz  was,  with  prac- 
tical unanimity,  reflected.  His  second  term  was  soon  marked 
by  financial  reforms  which  aided  to  repair  the  large  deficit 
left  by  the  Gonzalez  administration.  The  credit  of  the  nation 
was  soon  recognized  by  all  the  exchanges  of  Europe.  Im- 
mense sums  were  spent  on  public  improvements ;  free  schools 
were  organized;  education  became  compulsory,  and  the 
alcabales,  or  local  state  duties  —  a  long-surviving  and  perni- 
cious relic  of  Spanish  colonial  days  —  were  abolished.  The 
drainage  canal  —  that  colossal  project  which  had  puzzled  the 
minds  of  Mexico's  rulers  since  the  14th  century  —  was  un- 
dertaken and  carried  to  successful  completion.  The  solving  of 
this  great  problem  alone  was  of  incalculable  benefit  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico. 

Diaz  also  instituted  other  wholesome  reforms :  he  reduced 
the  president's  salary  from  $30,000  to  $15,000,  and  ordered  a 
reduction  of  from  15  to  20  %  in  the  salaries  of  many  govern- 


HISTORY  AND  RACES  85 

ment  employees.  The  matter  of  reorganizing  the  army  was 
handled  with  consummate  skill;  ere  long  the  country  was  rid 
of  the  bandidos  which  had  formerly  infested  the  highways, 
and  the  most  prominent  bandit  chiefs  not  only  became  stanch 
supporters  of  the  Government,  but  zealous  exterminators  of 
their  own  kind  as  well.  Transcendental  results  were  attained 
in  the  stimulus  given  to  education.  In  1888,  the  Constitution 
was,  by  popular  acclamation,  amended  to  allow  a  president 
two  consecutive  terms.  As  the  now  thoroughly  aroused  na- 
tion began  to  fear  that  it  might  lose  its  famous  leader,  all 
limitations  were  abolished  (in  1892),  and  as  no  single  man 
in  the  Republic  was  found  to  embody  the  remarkable  wisdom 
and  statesmanship  of  Porfirio  Diaz,  this  Greatest  Mexican 
succeeded  himself  in  the  presidency  with  a  lack  of  friction 
that  would  have  amazed  the  older  political  agitators.  This 
great  man  possessed  the  wisdom  and  the  statesmanship,  the 
strong  arm  and  the  steadfast  purpose,  necessary  to  weld  the 
warring  factions,  to  reconcile  the  antagonistic  parties,  and  to 
lift  Mexico  from  retrogressive  chaos  and  launch  it  on  a  career 
of  unexampled  prosperity.  Under  his  wise  and  far-seeing 
administration  the  country  advanced  from  a  position  of  a 
nondescript  Latin- American  Republic  —  not  unfrequently  a 
synonym  for  revolutions  —  to  that  of  one  of  the  progressive 
nations  of  the  world.  The  Mexico  of  Diaz  was  orderly,  pro- 
gressive and  respected.  Its  credit  was  of  the  highest. 

Foxiirio  Diaz  was  born  in  Oaxaca  City,  Sept.  15, 1 830.  His  father  was 
of  Spanish  parentage;  his  mother  was  a  Mestiza  (of  a  Spanish  Asturian 
father  and  a  pure-bred  Mixtec  Indian),  and  both  were  poor  and  humble. 
At  an  early  age  Porfirio  showed  such  marked  characteristics  that  they 
attracted  the  attention  of  Benito  Juarez,  then  Governor  of  the  State  of 
Oaxaca,  who  later  instilled  into  him  many  admirable  qualities.  The  lad 
took  to  things  military  just  as  did  the  young  Napoleon.  Reserved,  stu- 
dious, brave,  and  wise,  he  soon  became  noted  for  a  fervid  patriotism,  rare 
executive  ability,  and  an  unalterable  will.  A  captain  in  the  army  at  32, 
his  bravery  soon  obtained  for  him  the  title  of  General 4  and  ere  long  he 
became  a  prominent  figure  in  the  military  life  of  the  Republic.  From  his 
second  election  to  the  presidency  in  1 884,  his  fame,  separated  from  spec- 
tacular military  exploits,  began  to  acquire  a  solid  and  enduring  form.  He 
IB  the  wisest  and  most  beneficent  ruler  Mexico  has  ever  had.  Few  men  are 
more  patriotic,  few  more  far-seeing  and  more  self-sacrificing,  and  few 
indeed  are  more  beloved.  No  words  can  add  to,  or  detract  from,  his  fame, 
which  is  as  enduring  as  the  hills. 

Consult  Life  of  Porfirio  Diaz,  by  Hubert  Howe  Bancroft  (San  Fran- 
cisco, 1887),  Porfirio  Diaz,  by  Mrs.  A.  Tweedie  (London,  1907),  Porfirio 
Diaz,  La  Evolution  de  su  Vida,  by  Licenciado  Rafael  de  Zayas  Enriquez 
(New  York,  1908),  Un  Pueblo,  un  Siglo  y  un  Hombre,  by  Dr.  Fortunate 
Hernandez  (Mexico,  1909),  Porfirio  Diaz,  by  Jose"  F.  Godoy  (New  York, 
1910). 


86       CHIEF  EVENTS  IN  MEXICAN  HISTORY 

Chronological  Table  of  the  Chief  Events  in  Mexican 
History. 

I.  From  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Spanish  Conquest. 

7th  Cent.  The  Toltecs,  advancing  from  a  northerly  direction, 
entered  the  territory  of  Andhuac  at  the  close  of  the 
Seventh  Century. 

1100.  The  Toltecs,  who  had  extended  their  sway  over  the 
remotest  borders  of  Andhuac,  disappeared  from  the 
land  as  silently  and  as  mysteriously  as  they  had  en- 
tered it. 

1200.  A  numerous  and  rude  tribe,  called  the  Chichimecs, 
entered  the  deserted  country  from  the  far  North- 
west. 

1200-1300.  Other  races,  of  a  higher  civilization,  followed  the 
Chichimecs  and  reached  the  country  from  the  North. 
The  most  noted  of  these  were  the  Aztecs,  or  Mexicans. 

1325.  The  Mexicans  establish  themselves  in  the  Valley  of 
Andhuac  and  call  their  settlement  Tenochtitlan. 

1485.   Hernan  Cortes  is  born  at  Medellin,  Estremadura,  Spain. 

1492.    Christopher  Columbus  discovers  America. 

1502.   Montezuma  II  is  raised  to  the  Aztec  throne. 

1504.    Hernan  Cortes  sails  for  Cuba. 

1517.  Francisco  Hernandez  de  Cordoba,  in  the  course  of  a 
voyage  of  adventure  from  Cuba,  discovers  the  coast 
of  Yucatan,  March  4. 

II.  The  Spanish  Invasion  and  the  Downfall  o!  the  Aztec  Empire. 

1519.  Cortes  sails  from  Havana  Feb.  10,  lands  at  Tabasco 
(or  Grijalva)  March  20,  at  Vera  Cruz  April  21,  begins 
his  march  to  the  Aztec  metropolis  Aug.  16,  enters 
Tlaxcala  Sept.  23,  and  Tenochtitlan  Nov.  8. 

1520.  Montezuma  dies  June  20.    The  Spaniards  evacuate 
Tenochtitlan  on  the  night  (Noche  Triste)  of  July  1. 

1521.  Cortes  lays  siege  to  Tenochtitlan,  which  is  subjugated 
Aug.  13. 

III.  Mexico  under  the  Spanish  Viceroys. 

1522.  Cortes  is  Governor,  Captain-General,  and  Chief  Justice 
of  the  conquered  territories  of  New  Spain.    The  first 
Catholic  church  estabHshed  in  Mexico  is  founded  at 
Tlaxcala. 

1524.  Come  jo  (council)  de  las  Indias  perfected  by  the  King 
of  Spain.  Arrival  in  Mexico  of  the  Franciscan  Friars 
known  as  the  Twelve  Apostles. 

1527.  Bishopric  of  Mexico  created.  The  first  Bishop,  Juan 
de  Zumarraga,  collects  the  picture-paintings,  writings 
and  historical  MSS.  of  the  Indians  from  the  great  de- 


CHIEF  EVENTS  IN  MEXICAN  HISTORY      87 

pository  of  the  national  archives  at  Tezcuco,  and  from 
other  sources,  assembles  them  in  the  market-place  of 
Tlaltelolco,  and  burns  them.  Bigotry  thus  destroys  the 
priceless  annals  of  the  first  Americans. 

1531.  Alleged  miraculous  apparition  of  the  Virgin  of  Guada- 
lupe  in  Mexico. 

1547.  Death  of  Hernando  Corte*s,  at  Castilleja  de  la  Cuesta, 
Spain,  Dec.  2,  in  the  63d  year  of  his  age. 

1571.  The  Tribunal  of  the  Inquisition  is  formally  established 
in  the  City  of  Mexico. 

1691.    Conquest  of  Texas. 

1693.    First  newspaper  established  in  New  Spain. 

1767.    The  Jesuits  are  expelled  from  Spanish  America. 

1806.    Benito  Pablo  Juarez  born  March  21. 

1808.  Intervention  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  in  Spanish  affairs. 
Revolution  in  Spain.  The  idea  of  Mexican  independ- 
ence germinates. 

IV.  Beginning  of  the  Mexican  War  for  Independence. 

1810.   The  Parish  Priest  Miguel  Hidalgo  y  Costilla,  fugleman 
of  Mexican  freedom,  sounds  the  "Grito  de  Dolores" 
(Sept.  16)  and  the  death-knell  of  Spanish  misrule  in 
Mexico. 
^1811.   Hidalgo  captured  and  shot. 

1813.  First  Mexican  Congress  meets  at  Chilpancingo  Sept. 
14.  Formal  Declaration  of  Mex.  Independence  Nov.  6. 

1814.  First  Constitution  at  Apatzingan,  Oct.  22, 

1820.  Inquisition  suppressed  in  Mexico,  May  31. 

V.  Independent  Mexico.  The  First  Empire. 

1821.  Mexico  wins  Independence  from  Spain. 

1822.  First  Mexican  Congress.    Regency  installed. 
Agustin  de  Iturbide  named  Emperor,  May  19.  Antonio 
Lopez  de  Santa  Anna  proclaims  a  republic. 

V.  Collapse  of  the  First  Empire.  Rise  of  the  Mexican  Republic. 

1823.  Iturbide  abdicates ;  the  empire  falls  into  ruins.  Central- 
ist and  Federalist  parties  formed.    The  Monroe  Doc- 
trine (of  transcendental  interest  to  Mexico)  proclaimed 
by  the  United  States.  Iturbide  shot  at  Padilla,  July  14. 

1824.  Federal    Constitution    proclaimed.     Estados    Unidos 
Mexicanos  organized. 

1825.  The  Spanish  troops  evacuate  El  Castillo  de  San  Juan 
de  Ulua.    Extinction  of  Spain's  power  in  Mexico. 

1830.   Porfirio  Diaz,  the  Greatest  Mexican,  born  Sept.  15. 
1835.   Rebellion  of  Texas. 


88      CHIEF  EVENTS  IN  MEXICAN  HISTORY 

1843.   Bases  Orgdnicas  Politicas  de  la  Reptiblica  Mexicana 

and  final  Centralization  of  the  Government. 
1845.  Annexation  of  Texas  to  the  United  States. 


VIZ.  The  War  with  the  United  States. 

1846.  Advance  of  the  American  General  Taylor  to  Monterey. 
California  and  New  Mexico  taken  by  the  United  States. 
Monterey  (Mexico)  stormed  and  captured. 

1847.  Battle  of  Buena  Vista,  Feb.  23,   Chihuahua  occupied 
Feb.  28. 

General  Scott  entered  the  Valley  of  Mexico  Aug.  9. 
Battle  of  Churubusco,  Aug.  20.  Battle  of  "  Casa  Mata  " 
and  "Molino  del  Hey/'  Sept.  8.  Chapultepec  stormed 
and  captured  Sept.  13.  Entry  of  American  Army  into 
the  capital  Sept.  15. 

1848.  Treaty  of  Guadalupe-Hidalgo  (Feb.  2)  ends  war  with 
the  United  States. 

1856.  President  Comonfort  issued  (June  25)  decree  of  desa- 
mortizaddn  ordering  the  sale,  at  its  assessed  value,  of 
all  landed  estate  held  by  the  Church. 

1859.   Benito  Juarez  proclaims  (July  12)  the  Reform  Laws. 


TOL  The  French  Intervention. 

1861.  Treaty  of  London   (Oct.  31)  adopted  by  England, 
France,  and  Spain.    Their  forces  arrive  in  Vera  Cruz 
to  carry  out  provisions  of  the  treaty. 

1862.  Treaty  of  London  dissolved.  England  and  Spain  with- 
draw from  Mexico.    French  Army  advances  and  is 
defeated  at  Puebla.  in  famous  battle  of  Cinco  de  Mayo. 
Suppression  of  religious  orders  in  Mexico. 

1863.  French  troops  capture  Puebla  and  advance  on  the 
capital.    The  Republican  Government  retires  to  San 
Luis  Potosi,  thence  to  Saltillo,  and  later  to  Monterey. 
The  French  organize  a  government  at  the  capital  and 
elect  Maximilian  of  Hapsburg  Emperor  of  Mexico. 

DC.  The  Second  Empire.  Mexico  under  the  Austrian  Archduke 

MaTlmiHan- 

1864.  Maximilian  reaches  Mexico  and  is  crowned  June  12 
as  Emperor  of  Mexico. 

1865.  The  United  States  Government  demands  the  with- 
drawal of  French  troops  from  Mexico. 

1866.  The  Juarez  Government  returns  to  Chihuahua. 

1867.  The  French  troops  are  withdrawn  from  Mexico  in  Feb. 
General  Porfirio  Diaz  captures  Puebla  April  2. 


CHIEF  EVENTS  IN  MEXICAN  HISTORY      89 

X.  Downfall  of  the  Second  Empire.  Modem  Mexico. 

1867.  Maximilian  surrenders  May  15  to  General  Escobedo, 
at  Quere"taro.   Execution,  on  June  19,  of  Maximilian 
and  Generals  Mejia  and  Miramon,  at  QuerStaro. 
General  Porfirio  Diaz  takes  the  City  of  Mexico  June  21. 

1876.  General  Porfirio  Diaz  enters  Mexico  City  (Nov.  24)  at 
the  head  of  a  revolutionary  army  and  is  proclaimed 
Provisional  President. 

1877.  Porfirio  Diaz  is  elected  Constitutional  President. 
1884.  Porfirio  Diaz  is  again  made  President. 

1888.   Porfirio  Diaz  is  again  made  President. 

1892.   Porfirio  Diaz  is  again  made  President. 

1896.  Porfirio  Diaz  is  again  made  President. 

1900.  Porfirio  Diaz  is  again  made  President. 

The  great  canal  for  draining  the  Valley  of  Mexico  is 
completed  at  a  cost  of  sixteen  millions  of  pesos. 

1904.   Porfirio  Diaz  is  again  made  President. 

Guided  by  the  strong  hand  of  Porfirio  Diaz,  the 
greatest  Mexican,  the  United  Mexican  States  join 
the  rank  of  great  nations. 

1906.  Establishment  of  the  gold  standard. 

Great  influx  of  foreigners  and  foreign  capital. 
The  Diaz  Government  inspires  confidence,  revolutions 
are  things  of  the  past,  and  $800,000,000  of  foreign 
capital  comes  to  Mexico. 

1907.  The  national  revenues  exceed  the  expenditures  by 
twenty-nine  millions  of  pesos. 

1908.  A   shrewd   financial   plan,  conceived  by  Jos£  Yvez 
Limantour,  Mexico's  greatest  Minister   of  Finance, 
places  the  vast  Mexican   Central   Railway  System 
under  Government  control ;  the  lines  are  merged  with 
the  Mexican  National  System  under  the  title  of  Los 
Ferrocarriles  Nacionales  de  Mexico. 

1909.  Unexampled  prosperity  marks  the  Diaz  administration. 

1910.  Porfirio  Diaz,  though  in  his  80th  year,  is  again  elected 
President  by  an  overwhelming  majority. 

In  September  the  nation  celebrates,  with  great  splen- 
dor, the  100th  anniversary  of  its  independence. 
The  Mexican  Southern  Railway  is  absorbed  by  the 
National  Railways  of  Mexico. 

1911.  A  revolution,  organized  by  Francisco  Madero,  causes 
the  resignation  of  Porfirio  Diaz  as  President.  Civil  war 
breaks  out.    Mexico  is  crippled  in  her  march  toward 
civilization. 

1913.  Death  of  Madero.  Victoriano  Huerta  is  made  Con- 
stitutional President. 

1914.  Civil  war  rages  in  many,  parts  of  tfce  Republic.   Com- 
plications with  the  Waited  States.  *> 


CAMBRIDGE  .  MASSACHUSETTS 
U   .   S    .   A 


TERRY'S  MEXICO 

By  T.  PHILIP  TERRY,  F.R.G.S. 

A  New  Guide  Book  to  the  Mexican  Republic 

With  850  Pages  and  27  Maps  and  Plans 

Is  Indispensable  to  the  Tourist 
It  will  save  its  cost  the  first  day  it  is  put  to  use 

HISTORICAL,  DESCRIPTIVE,  PRACTICAL, 
USEFUL  AND  TRUSTWORTHY 

Invaluable  to  the  Traveler 

who  wishes  to  see  all  there  is  worth  seeing  in  Mexico  in  the  most  expe- 
ditious, satisfactory,  and  economical  way.  The  volume  is  modeled  after 
the  celebrated  Baedeker  Guide  Books,  and  its  850  pages  contain,  in  a 
concise  and  campact  form,  exhaustive  descriptions  of  Mexico's  chief 
points  of  interest,  —  its  cities,  towns,  museums,  picture-galleries,  cathe- 
drals, pyramids,  ruined  cities,  mines,  hunting,  fishing,  and  tourist  xcsorts, 
etc.,  etc.,  with  ample  notes  on  its  literature,  language,  architecture, 
painters  and  paintings,  Indian  races,  volcanoes,  etc. 

Every  railway  route  in  the  Republic,  from  the  Rio  Grande  to  Yuca= 
tan,  is  described  in  detail,  and  accompanying  these  descriptions  are 
many  useful  hints  to  the  traveler,  who  is  shown  how  he  can  save  many 
times  the  cost  of  the  book  the  first  time  he  puts  it  to  practical  use0 
Every  town  of  importance  has  its  list  of  hotels  with  their  charges,  their 
distance  from  the  railway  station  or  wharf,  cost  of  transfer  of  luggage, 
location  of  the  best  rooms,  etc.  With  this  handbook  the  tourist  can 
travel  intelligently  from  one  end  to  the  other  of  the  country,  without  the 
assistance  of  a  courier,  and  with  a  minimum  expenditure  of  time  and 
money. 

The  27  maps  and  plans,  in  colors,  of  the  Republic,  its  railways,  cities, 
cathedrals,  picture-galleries,  etc.,  were  drawn  specially  for  the  book,  and 
they  are  the  most  up-to-date  and  accurate  in  existence.  The  railway 
maps  show  railroads  not  found  on  other  maps. 

For  Sale  at  all  Bookstores  and  by 

HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 

4  PARK  STREET,  BOSTON 
Price  $2,50 

"  The  author  has  summarized  in  his  volume  more  practical  information 
about  Mexico  than  can  be  found  in  any  single  volume  on  that  country 
in  English."  —  New  York  Sun. 


RETURN  TO  the  circulation  desk  ot  any 
University  of  California  Library 

or  to  the 

NORTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 
Bldg.  400,  Richmond  Field  Station 
University  of  California 
Richmond,  CA  94804-4698 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 
2-month  loans  may  be  renewed  by  calling 
(510)642-6753 

1-year  loans  may  be  recharged  by  bringing 
books  to  NRLF 

Renewals  and  recharges  may  be  made  4 
days  prior  to  due  date. 

DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 


APR  El  1997 


11/95) 


YA  01056 

?™  LIBRARIES 


